PRONOUNS

Pronouns

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:

• number: singular (eg: I) or plural (eg: we)
• person: 1st person (eg: I), 2nd person (eg: you) or 3rd person (eg: he)
• gender: male (eg: he), female (eg: she) or neuter (eg: it)
• case: subject (eg: we) or object (eg: us)

We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.

Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:

number	person	gender	personal pronouns
			subject	object
singular	1st	male/female	I	me
	2nd	male/female	you	you
	3rd	male	he	him
		female	she	her
		neuter	it	it
plural	1st	male/female	we	us
	2nd	male/female	you	you
	3rd	male/female/neuter	they	them

Examples (in each case, the first example shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun):

• I like coffee.
• John helped me.
  
  
• Do you like coffee?
• John loves you.
  
  
• He runs fast.
• Did Ram beat him?
  
  
• She is clever.
• Does Mary know her?
  
  
• It doesn't work.
• Can the engineer repair it?
  
  
• We went home.
• Anthony drove us.
  
  
• Do you need a table for three?
• Did John and Mary beat you at doubles?
  
  
• They played doubles.
• John and Mary beat them.

When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:

• This is our dog Rusty. He's an Alsation.
• The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
• My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
• Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.

For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There are several solutions to this:

• If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
• If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
• If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.

We often use it to introduce a remark:

• It is nice to have a holiday sometimes.
• It is important to dress well.
• It's difficult to find a job.
• Is it normal to see them together?
• It didn't take long to walk here.

We also often use it to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:

• It's raining.
• It will probably be hot tomorrow.
• Is it nine o'clock yet?
• It's 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge.

Demonstrative Pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:

• near in distance or time (this, these)
• far in distance or time (that, those)

	near	far
singular	this	that
plural	these	those

Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:

• This tastes good.
• Have you seen this?
• These are bad times.
• Do you like these?
  
  
• That is beautiful.
• Look at that!
• Those were the days!
• Can you see those?
  
  
• This is heavier than that.
• These are bigger than those.

Possessive Pronouns

We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).

We use possessive pronouns depending on:

• number: singular (eg: mine) or plural (eg: ours)
• person: 1st person (eg: mine), 2nd person (eg: yours) or 3rd person (eg: his)
• gender: male (his), female (hers)

Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can:

• be subject or object
• refer to a singular or plural antecedent

number	person	gender (of "owner")	possessive pronouns
singular	1st	male/female	mine
	2nd	male/female	yours
	3rd	male	his
		female	hers
plural	1st	male/female	ours
	2nd	male/female	yours
	3rd	male/female/neuter	theirs

• Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)
• I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)
  
  
• I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your key)
• My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)
  
  
• All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
• John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
• John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)
  
  
• Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)
• Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)
  
  
• Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)
• I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (subject = your garden)
  
  
• These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject = Their children)
• John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)

Interrogative Pronouns

We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).

There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which

Notice that the possessive pronoun whose can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).

	subject	object
person	who	whom
thing	what
person/thing	which
person	whose		(possessive)

Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown in bold.

question	answer
Who told you?	John told me.	subject
Whom did you tell?	I told Mary.	object
What's happened?	An accident's happened.	subject
What do you want?	I want coffee.	object
Which came first?	The Porsche 911 came first.	subject
Which will the doctor see first?	The doctor will see the patient in blue first.	object
There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived?	John's (car) hasn't arrived.	subject
We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find?	I found John's (keys).	object

Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns (mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:

• Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?
• Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?
• They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

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THE ARTICLES

The articels

The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun).


The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:

The moon circles the earth.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:

The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.

The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..)

If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.
We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).

Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.

For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations.

First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.

A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.

In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:

There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.

Another example:
"I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Exception:
When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by cautionusing any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.

* A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
* An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
* The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
* Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.

Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:

* Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)
* Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots
* Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church
* Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times
* Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club

Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:

* The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.
* Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
* Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.

Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")

When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."

Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
idiomatic expressions
using be and go We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
He must be in school.
with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.
with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.
with meals Breakfast was delicious.
He's preparing dinner by himself.
with diseases He's dying of pneumonia.
Appendicitis nearly killed him.
She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
with time of day We traveled mostly by night.
We'll be there around midnight.

Principles of Choosing an Article

Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.

Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.


If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.

Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:

* That is SOME car you've got there!
* I don't want to hear ANY excuse!

As opposed to. . .

* We have some cars left in the lot.
* Isn't there any furniture in the living room?

In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns.

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MULTIPLEXING

FDM yaitu pemakaian secara bersama kabel yang mempunyai bandwidth yang tinggi terhadap beberapa frekuensi (setiap channel akan menggunakan frekuensi yang berbeda). Contoh metoda multiplexer ini dapat dilihat pada kabel coaxial TV, dimana beberapa channel TV terdapat beberapa chanel, dan kita hanya perlu tunner (pengatur channel) untuk gelombang yang dikehendaki. Pada teknik FDM, tidak perlu ada MODEM karena multiplexer juga bertindak sebagai modem (membuat permodulatan terhadap data digital). Kelemahan Modem disatukan dengan multiplexer adalah sulitnya meng-upgrade ke komponen yang lebih maju dan mempunyai kecepatan yang lebih tinggi (seperti teknik permodulatan modem yang begitu cepat meningkat). Kelemahannya adalah jika ada channel (terminal) yang tidak menghantar data, frekuensi yang dikhususkan untuk membawa data pada channel tersebut tidak tergunakan dan ini merugikandan juga harganya agak mahal dari segi pemakaian (terutama dibandingkan dengan TDM) kerana setiap channel harus disediakan frekuensinya. Kelemahan lain adalah kerana bandwidth jalur atau media yang dipakai bersama-sama tidak dapat digunakan sepenuhnya, kerana sebagian dari frekuensi terpaksa digunakan untuk memisahkan antara frekuensi channelchannel yang ada. Frekuensi pemisah ini dipanggil guardband
Prinsip dari FDM adalah pembagian bandwidth saluran transmisi atas sejumlah kanal (dengan lebar pita frekuensi yang sama atau berbeda) dimana masing-masing kanal dialokasikan ke pasangan entitas yang berkomunikasi. Contoh aplikasi FDM ini yang polpuler pada saat ini adalah Jaringan Komunikasi Seluler, seperti GSM ( Global System Mobile) yang dapat menjangkau jarak 100 m s/d 35 km. Tingkatan generasi GSM adalah sbb:
•First-generation: Analog cellular systems (450-900 MHz)
– Frequency shift keying for signaling
– FDMA for spectrum sharing
– NMT (Europe), AMPS (US)
•Second-generation: Digital cellular systems (900, 1800 MHz)
– TDMA/CDMA for spectrum sharing
– Circuit switching
– GSM (Europe), IS-136 (US), PDC (Japan)
•2.5G: Packet switching extensions
– Digital: GSM to GPRS
– Analog: AMPS to CDPD
•3G:
– High speed, data and Internet services
– IMT-2000

Tujuan Muliplexing
- meningkatkan effisiensi penggunaan bandwidth / kapasitas saluran transmisi dengan cara berbagi akses bersama.

Jenis Teknik Multiplexing
Teknik Multiplexing yang umum digunakan adalah :
a. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) : - Synchronous TDM
- Asynchronous TDM
b. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
c. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
d. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
e. Optical code Division Multiplexing (ODM)

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Protocol x.25

Protocol x.25 adalah Standar internasional untuk akses jaringan dengan penyakelaran paket (packet switching) yang pertama muncul adalah X.25, yang direkomendasikan oleh CCITT (sekarang ITU-T) pada tahun 1976. Frame Relay yang muncul setelah X.25 ternyata jauh lebih efektif daripada X.25, karena X.25 kerjanya menjadi lambat karena adanya koreksi dan deteksi kesalahan. Frame Relay memiliki sedikit perbedaan, ia mendefinisikan secara berulang header-nya pada bagian awal dari frame seperti terlihat pada Gambar 1d, sehingga dihasilkan header frame normal 2-byte. Header Frame Relay dapat juga diperluas menjadi 3-byte atau 4-byte untuk menambah ruang alamat total yang disediakan. Dalam gambar-gambar yang mengilustrasikan jaringan-jaringan Frame Relay, piranti-piranti pengguna ditunjukkan sebagai pengarah-pengarah LAN, karena hal tersebut merupakan aplikasi Frame Relay yang berlaku secara umum. Tentu saja mereka dapat juga merupakan jembatan-jembatan LAN, Host atau front-end processor atau piranti lainnya dengan sebuah antarmuka Frame Relay.
Header Frame Relay terdiri dari deretan angka sepuluh bit, DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier) merupakan nomor rangkaian virtual Frame Relay yang berkaitan dengan arah tujuan frame tersebut. Dalam hal hubungan antar kerja LAN-WAN, DLCI ini akan menunjukkan port-port yang merupakan LAN pada sisi tujuan yang akan dicapai.

Device pada X.25 ini terbagi menjadi tiga kategori:

* Data Terminal Equipment (DTE),
* Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) serta
* Packet Switching Exchange (PSE).
* Device yang digolongkan DTE adalah end-system seperti terminal, PC, host jaringan (user device).
* Sedang device DCE adalah device komunikasi seperti modem dan switch. Device inilah yang menyediakan interface bagi komunikasi antara DTE dan PSE. Adapun PSE ialah switch yang yang menyusun sebagian besar carrier network. Hubungan antar ketiga kategori ini diilustrasikan pada gambar dibawah ini.

Protokol Pada X.25

* Penggunaan protokol pada model standar X.25 ini meliputi tiga layer terbawah dari model referensi OSI. Terdapat tiga protokol yang biasa digunakan pada implementasi X.25 yaitu:
* Packet-Layer Protocol (PLP),
* Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB)
* Serta beberapa standar elektronik dari interface layer fisik seperti EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, dan G.703.
* Gambar di bawah ini mengilustrasikan protokol-protokol X.25 ini pada model OSI.

ebelum dua titik saling berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan protokol X.25 maka kedua titik ini harus terlehih dahulu membangun hubungan. Terdapat dua jenis mode dalam X.25 untuk membangun hubungan yaitu:

· SVC (Switched Virtual Channel), Dalam mode ini node yang berinisiatif untuk membangun koneksi harus mengirimkan sinyal call request ke node tujuan. Bila diterima maka node tujuan akan mengirimkan sinyal call accepted dan sebaliknya bila ditolak maka node tujuan akan mengirimkan sinyal call rejected. Analogi dari mode koneksi ini adalah komunikasi melalui telepon, bila seseorang ingin menghubungi orang lain maka orang tersebut terlebih dahulu harus men-dial nomor tertentu. Diterima tidaknya panggilan ini tergantung dari titik tujuan. Virtual channel yang digunakan dalam mode SVC adalah per call basis.

· PVC (Permanent Virtual Channel), Dalam mode ini virtual channel yang digunakan bersifat dedicated dan tidak perlu adanya ritual call setup. Analogi dari mode ini ini adalah saluran leased line dimana secara end-t-end hubungan fisik dan logik sudah terbentuk.

Kelebihan:

· Protokol X.25 memiliki kecepatan yang lebih tinggi dibanding RS-232 (64 kbps dibanding 9600 bps).

· Protokol X.25 memiliki kemampuan untuk menyediakan logical channel per aplikasi.

· Pendudukan logical channel dapat dilakukan secara permanen dengan mode PVC (Permanent Virtual Channel) maupun temporary dengan mode SVC (Switched Virtual Channel) disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan.

· Data transfer pada X.25 bersifat reliable, data dijamin bahwa urutan penerimaan akan sama dengan waktu data dikirimkan.

· Protokol X.25 memiliki kemampuan error detection dan error correction.

Kekurangan:

· Tidak semua sentral memiliki antarmuka X.25. Sehingga diperlukan pengadaan modul X.25 dengan syarat bahwa sentral sudah support X.25.

· Untuk pengembangan aplikasi berbasis protokol X.25 membutuhkan biaya yang relatif lebih besar dibanding dengan RS-232 terutama untuk pembelian card adapter X.25.

· Untuk komunikasi data antara sentral dengan perangkat OMT beberapa sentral diidentifikasi menggunakan protokol proprietary vendor tertentu yang berjalan di atas protokol X.25.

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Frame Relay

Frame relay merupakan protocol WAN yang mempunyai performance tinggi yang bisa memberikan koneksi jaringan WAN sampai 2,048 Mbps (dan bahkan bisa lebih tinggi) ke berbagai belahan dunia. Frame relay menggunakan circuit virtual untuk koneksi site-2 dan memberikan lebar pipa bandwidth berskala yang bisa dijamin (dengan menggunakan apa yang disebut sebagai CIR- committed information rate). Frame relay begitu popular karena penawaran bandwidth yan berskala melalui jalur digital. Dengan menggunakan konfigurasi standard frame relay akan merupakan cara yang sederhana untuk meminimalkan masalah jaringan-2 frame relay.

Frame relay didesign untuk transmisi digital melalui medium yang sudah handal, yang pada umumnya adalah fiber optic, bandingkan dengan jaringan yang menggunakan X.25 yang pada awalnya didesign untuk jaringan transmisi analog melalui medium yang dianggap tidak handal seperti standard line telpon.

Standarisasi Frame Relay
Proposal awal mengenai teknologi Frame Relay sudah diajukan ke CCITT semenjak tahun 1984, namun perkembangannya saat itu tidak signifikan karena kurangnya interoperasi dan standarisasi dalam teknologi ini. Perkembangan teknologi ini dimulai di saat Cisco, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Northern Telecom, dan StrataCom membentuk suatu konsorsium yang berusaha mengembangkan frame relay. Selain membahas dasar-dasar protokol Frame Relay dari CCITT, konsorsium ini juga mengembangkan kemampuan protokol ini untuk berinteroperasi pada jaringan yang lebih rumit. Kemampuan ini di kemudian hari disebut Local Management Interface (LMI).

Format Frame Relay
Format Frame Relay terdiri atas bagian-bagian sebagai berikut:
Flags
Membatasi awal dan akhir suatu frame. Nilai field ini selalu sama dan dinyatakan dengan bilangan hexadesimal 7E atau 0111 1110 dalam format biner. Untuk mematikan bilangan tersebut tidak muncul pada bagian frame lainnya, digunakan prosedur Bit-stuffing dan Bit-destuffing.

Address
Terdiri dari beberapa informasi:
1. Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI), terdiri dari 10 bita, bagian pokok dari header Frame Relay dan merepresentasikan koneksi virtual antara DTE dan Switch Frame Relay. Tiap koneksi virtual memiliki 1 DLCI yang unik.
2. Extended Address (EA), menambah kemungkinan pengalamatan transmisi data dengan menambahkan 1 bit untuk pengalamatan
3. C/R, menentukan apakah frame ini termasuk dalam kategori Perintah (Command) atau Tanggapan (Response)
4. FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification), indikasi jumlah frame yang dibuang karena terjadinya kongesti di jaringan tujuan
5. BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification), indikasi jumlah frame yang mengarah ke switch FR tersebut tetapi dibuang karena terjadinya kongesti di jaringan asal
6. Discard Eligibility, menandai frame yang dapat dibuang jika terjadi kongesti di jaringan

Data
Terdiri dari data pada layer di atasnya yang dienkapsulasi. Tiap frame yang panjangnya bervariasi ini dapat mencapai hingga 4096 oktet.

Frame Check Sequence
Bertujuan untuk memastikan integritas data yang ditransmisikan. nilai ini dihitung perangkat sumber dan diverifikasi oleh penerima.

Sirkuit Virtual
Frame pada Frame Relay dikirimkan ke tujuannya dengan menggunakan sirkit virtual (jalur logikal dalam jaringan). Sirkit Virtual ini bisa berupa Sirkit Virtual Permanen (Permanent Virtual Circuit / PVC), atau Sirkit Virtual Switch (Switched Virtual Circuit / SVC).

Berikut ini adalah fitur utama dari frame relay:

* Frame relay memberikan deteksi error tapi tidak memberikan recovery error.
* Frame relay memberikan transfer data sampai 1.54Mbs
* Frame relay mempunyai ukuran paket yang bervariable (disebut frame)
* Frame relay bisa dipakai sebagai koneksi backbone kepada jaringan LAN
* Frame relay bisa dimplementasikan melalui berbagai macam koneksi sambungan (56K, T1, T3)
* Frame relay beroperasi pada layer physical dan layer Data link pada model OSI

2. KEUNTUNGAN FRAME RELAY
Frame Relay menawarkan alternatif bagi teknologi Sirkuit Sewa lain seperti jaringan X.25 dan sirkuit Sewa biasa. Kunci positif teknologi ini adalah:[3]
•Sirkuit Virtual hanya menggunakan lebar pita saat ada data yang lewat di dalamnya, banyak sirkuit virtual dapat dibangun secara bersamaan dalam satu jaringan transmisi.
•Kehandalan saluran komunikasi dan peningkatan kemampuan penanganan error pada perangkat-perangkat telekomunikasi memungkinkan protokol Frame Relay untuk mengacuhkan Frame yang bermasalah (mengandung error) sehingga mengurangi data yang sebelumnya diperlukan untuk memproses penanganan error.

Frame relay addressing
Frame relay menggunakan Data-link Connection Identifier (DLCI) untuk setiap circuit virtual
1. Range DLCI ada antara 16 dan 1007
2. DLCI mewakili koneksi antara dua piranti frame relay
3. Penyedia layanan frame relay memerikan DLCI saat vitual circuit di setup
4. Setiap DLCI adalah unik pada jaringan local akan tetapi tidak pada jaringan WAN secara keseluruhan.

Local Management Interface (LMI)
LMI merupakan satu set ekstensi management protocol yang mengautomasikan banyak tugas-2 management frame relay. LMI bertanggungjawab untuk memanage koneksi dan melaporkan status koneksi.

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Masalah keamanan data pada saat transaksi dan cara penanggulangannya

Pembayaran elektronik sekarang sudah menjadi seperti gaya hidup dan kebutuhan bagi sebagian masyarakat, terutama masyarakat perkotaan yang menginginkan pola bertransaksi yang praktis dan cepat. Dengan berkembangnya teknologi di bidang jaringan internet, suatu proses pembelian dan pembayaran melalui internet sudah bukan hal yang asing lagi.
Masalah terpenting dalam jaringan komputer adalah masalah keamanan data yang dikirimkan. Pelaku kejahatan memanfaatkan celah keamanan yang ada untuk dimasuki dan melakukan manipulasi data. Pihak penjahat itu bisa saja berniat untuk sekedar mencari tahu saja, atau juga bisa mencuri berbagai macam hal seperti uang, data rahasia, dll.
Secure Socket Layer (SSL) merupakan suatu protokol yang telah dikembangkan dan dipergunakan untuk mengatasi permasalahan keamanan yang mengancam proses transaksi menggunakan jaringan internet. SSL didukung pula dengan penyediaan fasilitas enkripsi yang cukup memadai dan dilengkapi dengan sebuah proses handshaking dan pengiriman data yang cukup aman untuk mengatasi berbagai kejahatan jaringan internet yang ada.
Dengan adanya kejahatan cyber yang berkembang di jaringan internet, maka tugas akhir ini akan menganalisa sistem keamanan yang mampu disediakan oleh sistem tersebut, meliputi simulasi serangan dan juga analisa yang disusun berdasarkan referensi yang sudah ada.
Sistem keamanan yang diimplementasikan ternyata bisa memenuhi parameter-parameter keamanan internet yaitu confidentiality, authority, authentication, integrity, dan non-repudiation. Sistem dengan protokol SSL ini juga sanggup mengantisipasi simulasi serangan man-in-the-middle dan juga masih aman terhadap serangan brute-force dalam waktu beberapa tahun ke depan. Kelemahan yang bisa diketahui dari sistem ini adalah masih rentan terhadap serangan denial of service, yang bisa membuat performa jaringan server menjadi sangat sibuk, dan bisa membuat kegagalan dalam transaksi rata-rata sebesar 2,31 % dari 15000 simulasi transaksi.

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PROTOKOL SECURE REAL TIME PROTOCOL

PROTOKOL SECURE REAL TIME PROTOCOL

Seiring dengan berkembangnya zaman, teknologi semakin mempererat hubungan antar manusia. Kita tidak
lagi perlu berhubungan secara langsung atau melalui tatap muka, kita dapat saling berhubungan satu
dengan yang lainnya misalnya melalui instant messenger, email, dll. Kita-pun semakin sadar mengenai
kebutuhan keamanan, dan kerahasiaan dari media tersebut. Karena kebutuhan itulah, SRTP sebuah metode
pengembangan dari RTP dibutuhkan.

SRTP adalah sebuah protocol yang dikembangkan oleh kelompok kecil yang berasal dari CISCO dan
Ericson dan dipublikasikan pada Maret 2004. SRTP – Secure Real-time Transport Protocol adalah
pengembangan dari protocol RTP yang menyediakan fitur kerahasiaan melalui fasilitas enkripsi,
autentikasi dan integritas pesan, dan relay protection untuk RTP traffic dan untuk mengontrol traffic untuk
RTP. SRTP berfungsi untuk menjamin pengamanan pengiriman data khususnya multimedia file.

SRTP menggunakan Algoritma AES sebagai metode enkripsi dalam pengiriman data. Pada aplikasinya
SRTP memiliki 2 buah mode, yaitu Segmented Integer Counter, dan AES di f8-mode. Selain itu SRTP juga
dapat berjalan dengan mode null cipher. Mode ini adalah mode dimana pengiriman data tidak dilindungi
dengan algoritma enkripsi.

AES di Secured Real-time Transfer Protocol

Transformasi Enkripsi yang didefinisikan di
SRTP memetakan paket indeks dan mengubah
kunci rahasia menjadi keystream segment SRTP.
Setiapa keystream segment mengenkripsi sebuah
RTP.
Proses untuk mengenkripsi sebuah paket terdiri
dari:
•Menghasilkan keystream segment sesuai
dengan paket
•Bitwise keystream segment XOR dengan
payload dariPaket RTP untuk menghasilkan Bagian yang terenkripsi dari SRTP paket.

AES dalam mode Segmented Integer
Untuk memulai memahami kita mulai dengan
dengan plainteks M, kunci K, dan sebuah
counter ctr,dimana ctr adalah n bit string. C
adalah hasil XOR dari M dan bit pertama M akan
di pad sehingga

EK(ctr) || EK(ctr + 1) || EK(ctr + 2)||..

Sedangkan untuk mendekripsi diakukakn hal
yang sama sengan enkripsi tetapu M dan C
diubah urutannya

Untuk scenario yang penggunaanya dianjurkan
nonce akan diawali dengan 0 dan menghasilkan
string ctr sebanyak 128 bit yang encode number
nonce 264(atau nonce dianggap sebagai 64 bit
binary number) Number dari nonce diincrement
setiap enkripsi. Biasanya nilau C juga ditransmut
bersama string yang mengencode nonce.

Secara konsepsual, Counter Mode terdiri atas
mengenkripsi successive integers. Setiap paket
dienkripsi dengan keystream segment yang
berbeda, yang dapat dihitung dengan cara berikut
ini

Inklusi dari SSRC memperbolehkan kita untuk
menggunakan sebuah kunci yang sama untuk
melindungi distinct SRTP streams didialam RTP
session yang sama

Untuk SRTCP , SSRC dari setiap header pertama
dari compound packet harus di gunakan, 31 bit I
akan menjadi SRTCP index dan K_e , k_s akan
digantikan dengan SRTCP Encryption key dan
salt.

Analisis keamanan AES CTR Mode

Ketika menggunakan AES-CTR mode akan
menghasilkan kerahasiaan yang tinggi.
Sayangnya, sangat mudah untuk salah
mempergunakan counter mode. Ketika counter
block values digunakan dari satu paket dengan
kunci yang sama, key stream yang sama akan
digunakan untuk mengenkripsi kedua paket,
maka jaminan kerahasiaan terhindar/
the same key stream will be used to encrypt both
packets, then the con?dentiality
Ketika dua plainteks yang berbeda dienkripsi
dengan satu keystream yang sama dan ketika hal
tersebut terjadi serangan

(P1 XOR K1) XOR (Q1 XOR K1) = P1 XOR Q1
(P2 XOR K2) XOR (Q2 XOR K2) = P2 XOR Q2
(P3 XOR K3) XOR (Q3 XOR K3) = P3 XOR Q3

Ketika orang yang ingin menddengarkan
pembicaraan kita tersebut mendapatkan kedua
plaintext tersebut di xor bersama, maka akan
dengan mudah dapat di pecah dan mendapatkan
plaintextnya. Jadim menggunakan sebuah
keystream untuk mengenkripsi dua buah
plainteks akan memperlihatkan plainteks
tersebut. Maka jangan menggunakan AES CTR
dengan kunci yang static.

Selain itu kita juga membutuhkan perhatian yang
special untuk pencegahan penggunaan kembali
counter block value dengan static key selama
penggunaannya.

Supaya aman, implementasi ESP harus
menggunakan kunci yang baru untuk digunakan
dalam AES CTR. Internet Key Exchange
protocol dapat dipergunakan untuk mendapatkan
kunci yang baru. IKE juga dapat dipergunakan
untuk mendapatkan nonce yang ada di bagian
pertama dari security association.

Implementasi ESP yang memperbolehkan
penggunaan sebuah kunci yang sama untuk
enkripsi outbound traffic dam dekripsi incoming
traffic dengan peer yang sama harus bisa
memastikan bahwa nilai NONCE keduanya
berbeda

AES f8-mode

AES mode ini dipergunakkan untuk
mengenkripsi UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System). Untuk High Level,
F8-Mode merupakan variasi dari Ouput
Feedback Mode dengan elaborasi dari
inisialisasi dan feedback function. Jika pada
normal OFB, intinya terdiri dari block cipher
Penghasilan Keystream

Untuk Key stream S(0) ||... || S(L-1) sebagai N-
bit pesan akan didefinisikan dengan
Setting

IV’ = E(k_e XOR m,IV)

Dan j = 0, 1, …..L-1. Dimana L = N/ n_b
(difloorkan keatas). Perhatikan bahwa kita tidak
menggunakan langsung IV. Kita
menyerahkannya ke E dengan kunci lain untul
menghasilkan nilai yang tersamrkan untuk
mencegah Eavesdropper untuk mengetahui input
dan output pairs.

Peran internal counter j adalah untuk
menghindari siklus short keystream. Hasil kunci
yang tersamarkan m sebagai berikut

m = k_s | 0x555..5,

sender tidak perlu menghasilkan 232 block, yang
mana cukup untuk menghasilkan 239 block.

KESIMPULAN

Penggunaan kriptografi dalam jaringan komputer
sudah menjadi hal yang biasa. AES merupakan
salah satu metode yang diimplementasikan
sebagai pengamanan dalam salah satu bagian
dari hal tersebut.

Untuk menambah kesulitan dalam mendapatkan
pesan yang ada pada SRTP, maka pengiriman
pesan pada SRTP dapat dilakukan dengan
beberapa mode dari AES.

Mode-mode ini berguna untuk mengenkripsi
pesan dengan mode yang berbeda sehingga
eavesdropper tidak dengan mudah menebak
mode yang digunakan dan sehingga
eavesdropper tidak dengan mudah memecahkan
dan mendapatkan plainteks yang dia ingin curi.

Dari mode-mode yang ada, menurut penulis yang
paling baik adalah mode Counter Mode.
Walaupun Counter mode memiliki kelemahan
tetapi hasil enkripsi yang dihasilkan cukup kuat
sehingga susah dipecahkan. Dan hasil
keamanannya terjamin.

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Determiners

A determiner is a class of words that typically functions as a determiner (function) in noun phrases. As such, they establish the reference of a noun or noun phrase, including quantity, rather than its attributes as expressed by adjectives. Despite this tendency, determiners have a variety of functions including, in English, modifiers in adjective phrases and determiner phrases, and even markers of coordination.

This word class, or part of speech, exists in many languages, including English, though most English dictionaries still classify determiners under other parts of speech. Determiners usually include articles, and may include items like demonstratives, possessive determiners, quantifiers, and cardinal numbers, depending on the language.
Contents

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Past tense

Past Tense
Task: - Read the passage carefully. In the space between the lines, change the appropriate words to make the passage past tense. Just think of what you would say if all of the events in the passage happened yesterday.


Jim and Tom walk down the road towards town. They are going to buy the latest single by All Saints. Tom counts his money to make sure he can afford the single. They go into WHSmith and head towards the record department. Tom picks up the latest album by Robbie Williams. It has a good front cover, but Tom still wants to buy the All Saints single. He passes the single to the sales girl who takes his money off him. Tom takes the bag, but forgets the receipt so he runs back into the shop. The boys look at the single; they really want to play it. Jim wishes he has enough money to buy the Robbie Williams album. The boys talk for a while. They decide that they have enough if Tom gives Jim some of his money. Both boys now have a new record and are very pleased with themselves.

Past Tense
Task: - Read the passage carefully. In the space between the lines, change the appropriate words to make the passage past tense. Just think of what you would say if all of the events in the passage happened yesterday.


Jim and Tom walk down the road towards town. They are going to buy the latest single by All Saints. Tom counts his money to make sure he can afford the single. They go into WHSmith and head towards the record department. Tom picks up the latest album by Robbie Williams. It has a good front cover, but Tom still wants to buy the All Saints single. He passes the single to the sales girl who takes his money off him. Tom takes the bag, but forgets the receipt so he runs back into the shop. The boys look at the single; they really want to play it. Jim wishes he has enough money to buy the Robbie Williams album. The boys talk for a while. They decide that they have enough if Tom gives Jim some of his money. Both boys now have a new record and are very pleased with themselves.


Past Tense
Task: - Read the passage carefully. In the space between the lines, change the appropriate words to make the passage past tense. Just think of what you would say if all of the events in the passage happened yesterday.


Jim and Tom walk down the road towards town. They are going to buy the latest single by All Saints. Tom counts his money to make sure he can afford the single. They go into WHSmith and head towards the record department. Tom picks up the latest album by Robbie Williams. It has a good front cover, but Tom still wants to buy the All Saints single. He passes the single to the sales girl who takes his money off him. Tom takes the bag, but forgets the receipt so he runs back into the shop. The boys look at the single; they really want to play it. Jim wishes he has enough money to buy the Robbie Williams album. The boys talk for a while. They decide that they have enough if Tom gives Jim some of his money. Both boys now have a new record and are very pleased with themselves.


Past Tense
Task: - Read the passage carefully. In the space between the lines, change the appropriate words to make the passage past tense. Just think of what you would say if all of the events in the passage happened yesterday.


Jim and Tom walk down the road towards town. They are going to buy the latest single by All Saints. Tom counts his money to make sure he can afford the single. They go into WHSmith and head towards the record department. Tom picks up the latest album by Robbie Williams. It has a good front cover, but Tom still wants to buy the All Saints single. He passes the single to the sales girl who takes his money off him. Tom takes the bag, but forgets the receipt so he runs back into the shop. The boys look at the single; they really want to play it. Jim wishes he has enough money to buy the Robbie Williams album. The boys talk for a while. They decide that they have enough if Tom gives Jim some of his money. Both boys now have a new record and are very pleased with themselves.

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Simple present

Simple Present

Ada beberapa penggunaan dari simple present tense, yaitu :
1. untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berulang
2. untuk menyatakan generalisasi atau kegiatan yang biasa berlangsung
3. Untuk menyetakan kegiatan saat ini.
Untuk lebih jelasnya perhatikan penjelesan di bawah ini

1. Repeated Actions (Kegiatan berulang)
Simple present dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan gagasan atau kegiatan yang dilakukan sering dilakukan berulangkali seperti bangun tidur, atau kebiasaan seperti berolahraga, jadwal pemberangkatan kendaraan dan lain sebagainya, kegiatan tersebut dapat berupa kebiasaan, hobby, kegiatan sehari-hari, jadwal, dan juga kebiasaan yang selalu tidak dilakukan.




Dari gambar diatas tanda silang warna biru adalah kejadian yang dilakukan, jadi kejadian tersebut selain dilakukan saat ini (persent) juga dilakukan pada waktu lampau (past) dan yang akan datang (future)

EXAMPLES:

I play tennis.

She does not play tennis.

The train leaves every morning at 8 am.

The train does not leave at 9am.

She always forgets her purse.

He never forgets his wallet.

Every twelve months, the Earth circles the sun.

The sun does not circle the Earth.

2. Menyatakan Kebenaran atau keadaan yang umum (Facts or Generalizations)

Simple Present dapat juga digunakan untuk mengekspresikan suatu kejadian yang benar pada masa lampau, sekarang maupun yang akan datang, misalnya matahari terbit dari barat, satu jam 360 menit dan lain sebagainya. Selain itu Simple Present juga digunakan untuk menyatakan generalisasi (keadaan yang umum) terhadap pikiran orang, misalnya orang batak suka musik, burung mempunyai sayap dan lain sebagainya
Perhatikan gambar berikut untuk lebih jelasnya
.


EXAMPLES:

Cats like milk.

Birds do not like milk.

Jakarta is in Indonesia

Surabaya is not in the United Kingdom.

Windows are made of glass.

Windows are not made of wood.

Jakarta is a small city. (It is not important that this fact is untrue.)

3. Keadaan Sekarang Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Simple Present digunakan juga untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berlangsung maupun tidak berlangsung saat ini secasra spontan. Namun hanya bisa digunakan dengan Non-continuous Verbs dan Mixed Verbs.



EXAMPLES:

I am here now.

She is not here now.

He needs help right now.

He does not need help now.

He has a car.
Diterjemahkan dari : englishpage.com

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articels

Articles of Association of
Simpol - UK


Interpretations
1. In these Articles:
"The Act" means the Companies Act 1985 as amended by the Companies Act 1989 and any other amendments from time to time in force.
"The Company" means the above named company.
"The memorandum" means the Memorandum of Association of the Company.
"The articles" means these Articles of Association.
“The Founding Declaration” means the Founding Declaration of Simpol-UK as at the time of incorporation of the Company or as may be amended from time to time.
"The Board of Trustees" means all those persons appointed to perform the duties of directors of the Company.
"Secretary" means any person appointed to perform the duties of the Secretary of the Company.
"The Seal" means the common seal of the Company.
"In writing" shall be taken to include references to writing, printing, photocopying and other methods of representing or reproducing words in a visible form.
Words importing the singular number shall include the plural and vice versa unless a contrary intention appears. Words importing persons shall include bodies corporate and associations if not inconsistent with the context. Unless the context requires otherwise, words or expressions contained in these Articles shall bear the same meaning as in the Act.
Any statutory instruments or regulations from time to time in force shall be deemed to apply to the Company, whether or not these Articles have been amended to comply with such instrument or regulation.

Members
2. The Management Board may at its discretion admit to membership any individual person who lives in the United Kingdom or who is a United Kingdom citizen and who has adopted Simultaneous Policy, supports the work of the Company, accepts the rules and objectives of the Company, and who has paid or agreed to pay the annual subscription (if any) for the time being in force.

Register of Members
3. The Company shall maintain a Register of Members in which shall be recorded the name and address of every member, and the dates on which s/he became a member and on which s/he ceased to be a member. A member shall notify the Sec¬retary in writing within twenty one days of a change to their name or address.

Cessation of Membership
4. The rights and privileges of a member shall not be transferable nor transmissi¬ble, and all such rights and privileges shall cease upon the member ceasing to be such.

5. A member shall cease to be a member if s/he:

(a) resigns in writing to the Secretary; or

(b) ceases to meet any of the criteria for membership specified in article 2; or

(c) dies; or

(d) fails to pay the annual subscription within three months of it becoming due; or

(e) is expelled by the Management Board for conduct prejudicial to the Company, including bringing the Company into disrepute, defrauding the Company, being in breach of these memorandum and articles or of the Founding Declaration or of regulations made by the Company from time to time provided that any member whose expulsion is proposed shall be informed of the reasons for expulsion and have the right to make representation to the Management Board meeting at which the decision is to be made and if appropriate to thereafter appeal to the Board of Trustees.
General Meetings

6. The Company shall in each calendar year hold a General Meeting as its Annual General Meeting and shall specify the meeting as such in the notices calling it. Every Annual General Meeting shall be held not more than fifteen months after the holding of the last preceding Annual General Meeting. Provided the first Annual General Meeting shall be held within eighteen months of incorporation, it need not be held in the year of incorporation nor in the following year.

7. The business of an Annual General Meeting shall comprise:

(a) the consideration of the Report and Accounts presented by the Management Board;

(b) the notification of results of the election of members of the Board of Trustees, previously conducted by postal and/or electronic ballot;

(c) the appointment and the fixing of the remuneration of the auditor or auditors (if any);

(d) such other business as may have been specified in the notices calling the meeting.

8. All General Meetings other than the Annual General Meeting shall be called Extraordinary General Meetings.

9. The Board of Trustees may whenever they think fit convene an Extraordinary General Meeting, or an Extraordinary General Meeting may be convened by ten per cent of the members of the Company, as provided by section 368 of the Act.

10. Decisions at General Meetings shall be made by passing resolutions:
(a) Decisions involving an alteration to the memorandum or articles of the Company, or to wind up the Company, and other decisions so required from time to time by statute shall be made by a Special Resolution. A Special Resolution is one passed by a majority of not less than three fourths of votes cast.

(b) Amendments to the Founding Declaration shall be made by a resolution of members, the percentage required to pass such an amendment shall be determined by the Board of Trustees from time to time.

(c) Questions arising at any meeting shall be decided by consensus. By consensus is meant a situation where all members present are in agreement on an issue, or where those not in agreement agree not to maintain an objection. In the event of consensus not being possible, the matter shall be decided by a majority of votes, each member present having the right to one vote.

Notices
11. An Annual General Meeting and any General Meeting which is to consider a Special Resolution or a resolution to remove the auditor or a member of the Management Board shall be called by at least twenty one clear days’ notice. Any other General Meeting shall be called by at least fourteen clear days’ notice.

12. Notice of every General Meeting shall be given in writing to every member of the Company and to the auditors and to such other persons who are entitled to receive notice and shall be given personally or sent by post to each member at the address recorded in the Register of Members and to other persons at their Registered Office.

13. Notice of all meetings shall be given exclusive of the day on which it is served and shall specify the exact time and place of the meeting. In the case of a General Meeting which is to consider a Special Resolution or a resolution to remove
a Management Board member or the auditor, such resolution shall be specified in the notices calling that meeting and in the case of all other General Meetings the general nature of the business to be raised shall be specified.

14. Where notice is sent by post, notice shall be deemed to have been served by properly addressing, prepaying and posting the notice and to have been served forty eight hours after the notice has been posted.

15. The accidental omission to give notice of a meeting to or non receipt of notice of a meeting by any person entitled to receive notice shall not invalidate proceed¬ings at that meeting.

Proceedings at General Meetings
16. Any member of the Company, may act as proxy for another member who is absent from the meeting provided that any person claiming to act as proxy for any member shall produce written authorisation signed by the member in question to act as proxy on her/his behalf. A proxy may be instructed by the member for whom s/he is acting to support a consensus, or to vote this way or that on a particular resolution, or may be authorised to vote in accordance with her/his own judgement.

17. No business shall be transacted at a General Meeting unless a quorum is present. Unless and until otherwise decided by a General Meeting, ten members or five percent of the total membership, whichever is the greater, shall be a quorum.

18. If within half an hour from the time appointed for the meeting a quorum is not present, the meeting, if convened upon the requisition of members, shall be dissolved. In any other case it shall stand adjourned until such time and place as the Management Board may decide, and all members shall be given such notice as is practicable of the time, date and place of such an adjourned meeting. The members present at a meeting so adjourned shall constitute a quorum for that meeting only.

19. At every General Meeting the Chairperson of the Company - if there is one - shall preside, but if s/he is not present within twenty minutes after the time appointed for the com¬mencement of the meeting the members present shall choose one of their number to be Chairperson of that meeting, whose function shall be to conduct the business of the meeting in an orderly manner.

20. The Chairperson may with the consent of any meeting at which a quorum is present, and shall if so directed by the meeting, adjourn the meeting from time to time and from place to place, but no business shall be transacted at an adjourned meeting other than the business left unfinished at the meeting from which the adjournment took place. Where a meeting is adjourned for thirty days or more, notice of the adjourned meeting shall be given as in the case of the original meeting. Otherwise it shall not be necessary to give any notice of an adjournment or of the business to be transacted at an adjourned meeting.

21. At any General Meeting a resolution put to the vote of the meeting shall be decided on a show of hands unless a secret ballot is, before or on the declara¬tion of the result of the show of hands, demanded by the representatives of at least two members present. Unless a secret ballot be so demanded, a declara¬tion by the Chairperson that a resolution has on a show of hands been carried or lost and an entry to that effect in the minutes of the proceedings of the Company shall be conclusive evidence of the fact without proof of the number or proportions of the votes recorded in favour or against such resolution.

22. If a secret ballot is duly demanded it shall be taken in such a manner as the Chairperson directs, provided that each member shall have only one vote, and the result of the ballot shall be deemed to be the resolution of the meeting at which the ballot was demanded. The demand for a secret ballot may be with¬drawn.

23. The demand for a secret ballot shall not prevent the continuance of a meeting for the transaction of any other business than the question upon which a ballot has been demanded.

24. In the case of an equality of votes, whether on a show of hands or on a ballot, the Chairperson of the meeting shall have a second or casting vote.
Board of Trustees

25. The Company shall have a Board of Trustees consisting of a minimum of three and a maximum of eleven people, whose function would be to act as the guardian and interpreter of the Founding Declaration, to safe guard the spirit of Simultaneous Policy and ensure the company has a strategic direction. For the avoidance of doubt the Board of Trustees are the Board of Directors of the Company.

26. The Board of Trustees shall be elected by the members of the Company for a maximum term of office of three years.

27. At the first and every Annual General Meeting, one third of the elected members of the Board of Trustees, or if their number is not a multiple of three then the number nearest to one-third, shall retire from office. The members to retire shall be those longest in office since their last election. Regarding members of the Board of Trustees who have been in office for the same length of time, in the absence of agreement or volunteers, the members to retire shall be selected by lot.

28. The Board of Trustees shall elect a chair from among their own number.

29. The position of Board of Trustees member shall be unpaid, however Board members may be paid all reasonable out of pocket expenses incurred by them in attending and returning from meetings of the Board or General Meetings of the Company or in connection with the business of the Company.

30. The office of Board of Trustee member shall be immediately vacated if s/he:

(a) resigns her/his office in writing to the Company; or

(b) in the opinion of a majority of the Board of Trustees, fails to declare her/his interest in any contract as referred to in article 31; or

(c) becomes bankrupt or, in the opinion of the Board of Trustees, incapable on medical or psychological grounds of carrying out the duties; or

(d) is removed from office by resolution of the Company in General Meeting in accordance with Section 303 of the Act; or

(e) is disqualified by law from serving as a director of a company.

31. A Board of Trustees member shall declare an interest in and shall not speak or vote in respect of any matter in which s/he has a personal material or financial interest or any matter arising from it.

Powers and Duties of the Board of Trustees
32. The business of the Company shall be managed by the Board of Trustees who may delegate all or any of the following functions to the Management Board, who may pay all expenses of the formation of the Company as they think fit and may exercise all such powers of the Company as may be exercised and done by the Company and as are not by statute or by these Articles required to be exercised or done by the Company in General Meeting.

33. No regulation made by the Company in General Meeting shall invalidate any prior act of the Board of Trustees which would have been valid had that regulation not been made.

34. All cheques, promissory notes, drafts, bills of exchange and other negotiable instruments, and all receipts for moneys paid to the Company shall be signed, drawn, accepted, endorsed, or otherwise executed in such manner as the Board of Trustees shall from time to time direct.

35. Without prejudice to its general powers, the Board of Trustees may exercise all the powers of the Company to borrow money and to mortgage or charge its undertaking and property or any part of them and to issue debentures and other securities whether outright or as security for any debt, liability or obligation of the Com¬pany or of any third party.

Proceedings of the Board of Trustees
36. Members of the Board of Trustees may meet together for the despatch of business and may adjourn and otherwise regulate their meetings as they think fit provided that they meet no fewer than four times per year.

37. The quorum necessary for the transaction of the business of the Board of Trustees shall be three Board of Trustees members or one third of the Board of Trustees, whichever is the greater.

38. The Board of Trustees shall cause accurate records to be made, in books provided for that purpose, of:

(a) the name, details and date of appointment of all persons appointed to office;

(b) the names of the Board of Trustees members, officers, members' representatives and other persons present at all General, Board of Trustees and Sub Committee meetings of the Company;

(c) minutes of all proceedings and resolutions at all General, Board of Trustees and Sub Committee meetings of the Company;

(d) all applications of the Seal to any document.

39. All such records and minutes shall be open to inspection during normal working hours by any member of the Board of Trustees and by any person authorised by the Com¬pany in General Meeting. Minutes of General Meetings shall be available for inspection by any member of the Company during normal working hours.

40. The Board of Trustees may delegate any of their powers to Sub Committees consisting of such members of their body and/or the Company as they think fit. Any Sub Committee so formed shall in the exercise of the powers so delegated conform to any regulations imposed on it by the Board of Trustees, which regulations shall always include provision for regular and prompt reports to the Board of Trustees.

41. All acts done by any meeting of the Board of Trustees or by any person acting as a member of the Board of Trustees shall, even if it be afterwards discovered that there was some defect in the appointment of any such Board of Trustees member or person acting as such, or that they or any of them were disqualified, be as valid as if every such person had been duly appointed and was qualified to be a Board of Trustees member.

42. A resolution in writing, signed by all the Board of Trustees members for the time being entitled to vote, shall be valid and effective as if it had been passed at a meeting of the Board of Trustees, and may consist of several documents in the same form, each signed by one or more Board of Trustees members.

43. The Board of Trustees may at their discretion invite other persons to attend its meetings, with or without speaking rights, and without voting rights.
Policy Committee

44. The Company may establish a Policy Committee whose function shall be to assist in formulating the policy content of the Simultaneous Policy based on research and dialogue with other Simultaneous Policy organisations. Members of the Policy Committee shall be appointed by virtue of their skills and experience. Procedures for the meetings, appointment and removal of Policy Committee members shall be determined by regulations in accordance with article 60.
Management Board

45. The Management Board shall be appointed by the Board of Trustees.

46. The Management Board shall be responsible for the day to day operations of the Company and for carrying out the policy determined by the Trustees. Management Board members may be paid for their services as well as being paid all reasonable out of pocket expenses incurred by them in attending and returning from meetings of the Board or General Meetings of the Company or in connection with the business of the Company.

47. A Management Board member shall declare an interest in and shall not speak or vote in respect of any matter in which s/he has a personal material or financial interest or any matter arising from it.

48. The Management Board shall meet and otherwise regulate their meetings as they consider fit.

Secretary
49. The Board of Trustees shall appoint a Secretary of the Company upon such conditions as they think fit and any Secretary so appointed may be removed by them.

50. A provision of the Act or these Articles requiring or authorising a thing to be done by or to a Board of Trustees member and the Secretary shall not be satisfied by its being done by or to the same person acting in both capacities.

The Seal
51. If the Company has a Seal, it shall only be used by the authority of the Board of Trustees and every instrument to which the Seal shall be applied shall be signed by a Board of Trustees member and shall be countersigned by the Secretary or by a second Board of Trustees member. Every such application of the Seal shall be minuted.

Accounts
52. The Board of Trustees shall cause proper accounts to be kept in accordance with the law for the time being in force with respect to:

(a) all sums of money received and expended by the Company and the matters in which the receipt and expenditure takes place;

(b) all sales and purchases of goods by the Company;

(c) the assets and liabilities of the Company.

53. Proper accounts shall be deemed to be kept if they give a true and fair record of the state of the Company's affairs and explain its transactions.

54. The accounts shall be kept at the Registered Office of the Company or, subject to section 222 of the Act, at such other place or places as the Board of Trustees thinks fit, and shall always be open to the inspection of all members and officers and by other persons authorised by the Company in General Meeting.

55. The Board of Trustees shall from time to time, in accordance with sections 227 and 241 of the Act, cause to be prepared and to be laid before the Company in General Meeting such income and expenditure accounts, balance sheets, and any reports referred to in those sections.

56. A copy of every balance sheet (including every document required by law to be annexed thereto) which is laid before the Company in General Meeting, together with a copy of the auditor's report and Board of Trustee’s report, shall not less than twenty one days before the date of the meeting (subject nevertheless to the provisions of section 240(4) of the Act) be sent to every member of and every holder of debentures of the Company; provided that this regulation shall not require a copy of those documents to be sent to any person of whose address the Company is not aware or to more than one of the joint holders of any debentures. The auditor's report shall be open to inspection and shall be read before the meeting.

Audit
57. In accordance with the law for the time being in force the Company may - if it is eligible to do so - apply the small company audit exemptions. Otherwise once at least in every year the accounts of the Company shall be examined and the correctness of the income and expenditure account and balance sheet ascer¬tained by one or more properly qualified auditor or auditors.

58. Auditors shall be appointed and their duties regulated in accordance with sections 237 and 384 of the Act.

Indemnity
59. Every Board of Trustees, Management Board member or auditor or officer of the Company shall be indemnified out of the assets of the Company against all losses or liabilities incurred by her/him in or about the execution and discharge of the duties of her or his office, except to the extent that such losses or liabilities shall be attributed to:

(a) fraud or other matters in respect of which such person concerned shall be convicted of a criminal offence; or

(b) negligence; or

(c) actions knowingly beyond the scope of a specific authority or limit thereon on the part of such person.

Regulations
60. The Company in General Meeting or the Board of Trustees may from time to time make, adopt and amend such regulations in the form of bye-laws, standing orders, secondary rules or otherwise as they may think fit for the management, conduct and regulation of the affairs of the Company and the proceedings and powers of the Board of Trustees, Management Board and Sub-Committees, provided that such regulations are not inconsistent with the memorandum and articles nor with the Founding Declaration, and do not amount to an addition or alteration such as could only legally be made by an alteration to the memorandum or articles. All members of the Company, Board of Trustees and Management Board shall be bound by such regulations whether or not they have received a copy of them.

Dissolution
61. Clause 8 of the Memorandum of Association relating to the winding up and dissolution of the Company shall have effect as if its provisions were repeated in these Articles.

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Other and Another

With Count Nouns
an + other + singular noun (one more)
another pencil
one more pencil the + other + singular man (last of set)
the other pencil
the last pencil present other + plural noun (more of the set)
other pencil
some more pencil the other + plural noun (the rest of these)
the other pencils
all remaining pencils

With Non-Count Nouns
other + non-count nouns (more of the set)
other water : some more water
the other + non-countnoun (all the rest)
the other water : the remaining water

Exercise
1. This pen isn't working please give me another
2. if you're still thirsty, i'll make the other pot of coffe
3. This dictionary has a page missing. Please give me the other one
4. He doesn't need those books. He needs the other
5. These are thirty people in the room. Tweenty are from Latin America and the other are from other countries
6. Six people were in the store two were buying meat the other was looking at magazines.
7. This glass of milk is sour. Another glass of milk is sour too.
8. The army was practicing its drills. One group was doing artillery other was marching, another was at attention, and the other was pradicing combat tactics.
9. These are seven students from Japan other are from Iran and the other from other places.
10.We locked at four cars today the first two were far too expensive, but the others ones were reasonably piced.

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