tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-78045675731034557442023-11-15T07:30:57.437-08:00ELSA NOVRIATI LINAELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.comBlogger14125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-59891500301867924762010-06-01T07:23:00.001-07:002010-06-01T07:23:48.177-07:00Utility Computing<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CYUNITA%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:Calibri; panose-1:2 15 5 2 2 2 4 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1610611985 1073750139 0 0 159 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin-top:0in; margin-right:0in; margin-bottom:10.0pt; margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family:Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";} span.longtext {mso-style-name:long_text;} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span class="longtext"><span style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman"; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">While utility computing or utility can be called with more computers to the computing resource itself. As the calculation and storage, as metered services similar to traditional public utilities (such as electricity, water, natural gas, or telephone network). This system has the advantage of low or no initial cost to get the hardware, but the computing resources are basically rented. Customers with very large computations or a sudden peak in demand can also avoid the delays that will get results from the physical and assembling a large number of computers. </span></span><span style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman"; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<br /><span class="longtext">"Utility computing" usually imagine some form of virtualization so that the amount of storage or computing power available would be far greater than the single time-sharing computer. Some servers are used at the end of "return" to make this possible. Maybe this is a dedicated computer cluster specifically built for the purpose of being leased out, or even an under-utilized supercomputer. Techniques to run a single calculation on multiple computers is known as distributed computing. </span>
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<br /> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-11166524585207474222010-06-01T07:21:00.000-07:002010-06-01T07:23:18.384-07:00Green Computing<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CYUNITA%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:Calibri; panose-1:2 15 5 2 2 2 4 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1610611985 1073750139 0 0 159 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin-top:0in; margin-right:0in; margin-bottom:10.0pt; margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:Calibri; mso-fareast-font-family:Calibri; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";} span.longtext {mso-style-name:long_text;} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--><span class="longtext"><span style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman"; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">Green computing (computing or green IT green) is based computing refers to a sustainable environment. This is "the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, use, and dispose of computers, servers, and related subsystems, such as monitors, printers, storage devices, networking and communication-efficient and effective system with minimal or no impact on Green IT environment. also seeks to achieve economic viability and increase system performance and use, while abiding by the social responsibility and ethics. Thus, the scope of green IT environment, economics of energy efficiency, and total cost of ownership, which includes the cost of disposal and recycling. This is the study and practice of using computing resource sefficiently. With the increasing recognition that human-made emissions of greenhouse gases is a major factor of global warming, corporate, government, and society in general now have important new agenda: tackling environmental issues and adopt environmentally friendly practices. Greening of our IT products, applications, services, and practices are both an economic and environmental imperatives, as well as our social responsibility. Therefore, more and more IT vendors and users move towards green IT and thus help in building a green society and economy. </span></span><span style="background: white none repeat scroll 0% 0%; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: "Times New Roman"; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;">
<br /><span class="longtext">The goal of green computing is similar to green chemistry, reducing the use of hazardous materials, maximize energy efficiency during the product life, and promote recyclability or biodegradability of waste products and dead plants </span>
<br /><span class="longtext">Green computing researchers look at key issues and topics related to energy efficiency in computing and promoting computer technology and environmentally friendly energy systems, including efficient use of computers, design of algorithms and computer systems for environmentally friendly technologies, and other related topics </span></span>ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-32144271102351977742009-11-15T07:06:00.000-08:002009-11-15T07:07:24.660-08:00PRONOUNS<h3 style="text-align: center;" class="post-title entry-title"><a href="http://yunitaetri.blogspot.com/2009/11/pronouns.html">Pronouns</a></h3><br /><p>Personal Pronouns</p><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li>number: singular (eg: <b>I</b>) or plural (eg: <b>we</b>)</li><li>person: 1st person (eg: <b>I</b>), 2nd person (eg: <b>you</b>) or 3rd person (eg: <b>he</b>)</li><li>gender: male (eg: <b>he</b>), female (eg: <b>she</b>) or neuter (eg: <b>it</b>) </li><li>case: subject (eg: <b>we</b>) or object (eg: <b>us</b>)</li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on.<br /></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Here are the personal pronouns, followed by some example sentences:<br /></div><table style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;" border="1" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody> <tr><td rowspan="2" valign="bottom">number</td><td rowspan="2" valign="bottom">person</td><td rowspan="2" valign="bottom">gender</td><td colspan="2">personal pronouns</td></tr> <tr><td>subject</td><td>object</td></tr> <tr><td rowspan="5">singular</td><td valign="top">1st</td><td>male/female</td><td><b>I</b></td><td><b>me</b></td></tr> <tr><td valign="top">2nd</td><td>male/female</td><td><b>you</b></td><td><b>you</b></td></tr> <tr><td rowspan="3">3rd</td><td>male</td><td><b>he</b></td><td><b>him</b></td></tr> <tr><td>female</td><td><b>she</b></td><td><b>her</b></td></tr> <tr><td>neuter</td><td><b>it</b></td><td><b>it</b></td></tr> <tr><td rowspan="3">plural</td><td>1st</td><td>male/female</td><td><b>we</b></td><td><b>us</b></td></tr> <tr><td>2nd</td><td>male/female</td><td><b>you</b></td><td><b>you</b></td></tr> <tr><td>3rd</td><td>male/female/neuter</td><td><b>they</b></td><td><b>them</b></td></tr> </tbody></table><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Examples (in each case, the first example shows a <b>subject pronoun</b>, the second an <b>object pronoun</b>):<br /></div><a name="more"></a><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li><b>I</b> like coffee.</li><li>John helped <b>me</b>.<br /><br /></li><li>Do <b>you</b> like coffee? </li><li>John loves <b>you</b>.<br /><br /></li><li><b>He</b> runs fast. </li><li>Did Ram beat <b>him</b>?<br /><br /></li><li><b>She</b> is clever.</li><li>Does Mary know <b>her</b>?<br /><br /></li><li><b>It</b> doesn't work.</li><li>Can the engineer repair <b>it</b>?<br /><br /></li><li><b>We</b> went home.</li><li>Anthony drove <b>us</b>.<br /><br /></li><li>Do <b>you</b> need a table for three?</li><li>Did John and Mary beat <b>you</b> at doubles?<br /><br /></li><li><b>They</b> played doubles.</li><li>John and Mary beat <b>them</b>. </li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use <b>it</b>. However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as <b>he</b>/<b>him</b> or <b>she</b>/<b>her</b>, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as female and referred to as <b>she</b>/<b>her</b>. Here are some examples:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li>This is our dog Rusty. <b>He</b>'s an Alsation.</li><li>The <i>Titanic</i> was a great ship but <b>she</b> sank on her first voyage.</li><li>My first car was a Mini and I treated <b>her</b> like my wife.</li><li>Thailand has now opened <b>her</b> border with Cambodia. </li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use <b>he</b> or <b>she</b>. There are several solutions to this:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li>If a teacher needs help, <b>he or she</b> should see the principal.</li><li>If a teacher needs help, <b>he</b> should see the principal.</li><li>If a teacher needs help, <b>they</b> should see the principal.</li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">We often use <b>it</b> to introduce a remark:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li><b>It</b> is nice to have a holiday sometimes.</li><li><b>It</b> is important to dress well.</li><li><b>It</b>'s difficult to find a job.</li><li>Is <b>it</b> normal to see them together?</li><li><b>It</b> didn't take long to walk here.</li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">We also often use <b>it</b> to talk about the weather, temperature, time and distance:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li><b>It</b>'s raining.</li><li><b>It</b> will probably be hot tomorrow.</li><li><b>Is</b> it nine o'clock yet? </li><li><b>It</b>'s 50 kilometres from here to Cambridge. </li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><h1 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Demonstrative Pronouns</h1><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li>near in distance or time (<b>this</b>, <b>these</b>) </li><li>far in distance or time (<b>that</b>, <b>those</b>) </li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"> </div><table style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;" border="1" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody> <tr><td><br /></td><td>near</td><td>far</td></tr> <tr><td>singular</td><td><b>this</b></td><td><b>that</b></td></tr> <tr><td>plural</td><td><b>these</b></td><td><b>those</b></td></tr> </tbody></table><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li><b>This</b> tastes good.</li><li>Have you seen <b>this</b>?</li><li><b>These</b> are bad times. </li><li>Do you like <b>these</b>?<br /><br /></li><li><b>That</b> is beautiful. </li><li>Look at <b>that</b>!</li><li><b>Those</b> were the days!</li><li>Can you see <b>those</b>?<br /><br /></li><li><b>This</b> is heavier than <b>that</b>.</li><li><b>These</b> are bigger than <b>those</b>.</li></ul><h1 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Possessive Pronouns</h1><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">We use possessive pronouns to refer to a specific person/people or thing/things (the "antecedent") belonging to a person/people (and sometimes belonging to an animal/animals or thing/things).<br /></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">We use possessive pronouns depending on:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li>number: singular (eg: <b>mine</b>) or plural (eg: <b>ours</b>)</li><li>person: 1st person (eg:<b> mine</b>), 2nd person (eg: <b>yours</b>) or 3rd person (eg: <b>his</b>)</li><li>gender: male (<b>his</b>), female (<b>hers</b>) </li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each possessive pronoun can:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li> be subject <i>or</i> object</li><li>refer to a singular <i>or</i> plural antecedent</li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"> </div><table style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;" border="1" cellpadding="7" cellspacing="0"><tbody> <tr><td valign="bottom">number</td><td valign="bottom">person</td><td valign="bottom">gender (of "owner") </td><td>possessive pronouns</td></tr> <tr><td rowspan="4">singular</td><td valign="top">1st</td><td>male/female</td><td><b>mine</b></td></tr> <tr><td valign="top">2nd</td><td>male/female</td><td><b>yours</b></td></tr> <tr><td rowspan="2">3rd</td><td>male</td><td><b>his</b></td></tr> <tr><td>female</td><td><b>hers</b></td></tr> <tr><td rowspan="3">plural</td><td>1st</td><td>male/female</td><td><b>ours</b></td></tr> <tr><td>2nd</td><td>male/female</td><td><b>yours</b></td></tr> <tr><td>3rd</td><td>male/female/neuter</td><td><b>theirs</b></td></tr> </tbody></table><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li>Look at these pictures. <b>Mine</b> is the big one. (subject = My picture)</li><li>I like your flowers. Do you like <b>mine</b>? (object = my flowers)<br /><br /></li><li>I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find <b>yours</b>. (object = your key)</li><li>My flowers are dying. <b>Yours</b> are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)<br /><br /></li><li>All the essays were good but <b>his</b> was the best. (subject = his essay)</li><li>John found his passport but Mary couldn't find <b>hers</b>. (object = her passport) </li><li>John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find <b>hers</b>. (object = her clothes)<br /><br /></li><li>Here is your car. <b>Ours</b> is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car) </li><li>Your photos are good. <b>Ours</b> are terrible. (subject = Our photos)<br /><br /></li><li>Each couple's books are colour-coded. <b>Yours</b> are red. (subject = Your books) </li><li>I don't like this family's garden but I like <b>yours</b>. (subject = your garden)<br /><br /></li><li>These aren't John and Mary's children. <b>Theirs</b> have black hair. (subject = Their children)</li><li>John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like <b>theirs</b>? (object = their car) </li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><h1 style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Interrogative Pronouns</h1><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about).<br /></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">There are four main interrogative pronouns: <b>who</b>, <b>whom</b>, <b>what</b>, <b>which</b><br /></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Notice that the <a href="http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-possessive.htm">possessive pronoun</a> <b>whose</b> can also be an interrogative pronoun (an interrogative possessive pronoun).<br /></div><table style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;" border="1" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody> <tr><td><br /></td><td>subject</td><td>object</td><td><br /></td></tr> <tr><td>person</td><td><b>who</b></td><td><b>whom</b></td><td><br /></td></tr> <tr><td>thing</td><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>what</b></td><td><br /></td></tr> <tr><td>person/thing</td><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>which</b></td><td><br /></td></tr> <tr><td>person</td><td colspan="2" align="center"><b>whose</b></td><td>(possessive)</td></tr> </tbody></table><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Look at these example questions. In the sample answers, the noun phrase that the interrogative pronoun represents is shown <b>in bold</b>.<br /></div><table style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; text-align: left;" border="1" cellpadding="10" cellspacing="0"><tbody> <tr><td>question</td><td>answer</td><td><br /></td></tr> <tr><td><b>Who</b> told you? </td><td><b>John</b> told me. </td><td>subject</td></tr> <tr><td><b>Whom</b> did you tell? </td><td>I told <b>Mary</b>. </td><td>object</td></tr> <tr><td><b>What</b>'s happened? </td><td><b>An accident</b>'s happened. </td><td>subject</td></tr> <tr><td><b>What</b> do you want? </td><td>I want <b>coffee</b>. </td><td>object</td></tr> <tr><td><b>Which</b> came first? </td><td><b>The Porsche 911</b> came first. </td><td>subject</td></tr> <tr><td><b>Which</b> will the doctor see first? </td><td>The doctor will see <b>the patient in blue</b> first. </td><td>object</td></tr> <tr><td>There's one car missing. <b>Whose</b> hasn't arrived? </td><td><b>John's (car)</b> hasn't arrived. </td><td>subject</td></tr> <tr><td>We've found everyone's keys. <b>Whose</b> did you find? </td><td>I found <b>John's (keys)</b>. </td><td>object</td></tr> </tbody></table><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;">Note that we sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns (mainly <b>whoever</b>, <b>whatever</b>, <b>whichever</b>). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:<br /></div><ul style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><li><b>Whoever</b> would want to do such a nasty thing? </li><li><b>Whatever</b> did he say to make her cry like that? </li><li>They're all fantastic! <b>Whichever</b> will you choose? </li></ul><div style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif; text-align: justify;"><br /></div>ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-4498748222535079472009-11-15T07:04:00.000-08:002009-11-15T07:05:57.667-08:00THE ARTICLES<h3 style="text-align: center;" class="post-title entry-title"><a href="http://silvianatalia-silvia.blogspot.com/2009/10/articels.html">The articels</a></h3><br />The three articles — a, an, the — are a kind of adjective. The is called the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or something else acting as a noun).<br /><br /><br />The is used with specific nouns. The is required when the noun it refers to represents something that is one of a kind:<br /><br /> The moon circles the earth.<br /><br />The is required when the noun it refers to represents something in the abstract:<br /><br /> The United States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of public transit.<br /><br />The is required when the noun it refers to represents something named earlier in the text. (See below..)<br /><br />If you would like help with the distinction between count and non-count nouns, please refer to Count and Non-Count Nouns.<br />We use a before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a sheep); we use an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door). Words that begin with an h sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of those words actually sounds like yoo (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because of that consonantal "Yoo" sound). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words once and one begin with a w sound (as if they were spelled wuntz and won).<br /><br />Merriam-Webster's Dictionary says that we can use an before an h- word that begins with an unstressed syllable. Thus, we might say an hisTORical moment, but we would say a HIStory book. Many writers would call that an affectation and prefer that we say a historical, but apparently, this choice is a matter of personal taste.<br /><br />For help on using articles with abbreviations and acronyms (a or an FBI agent?), see the section on Abbreviations.<br /><br />First and subsequent reference: When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify it.<br /><br /> A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.<br /><br />In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article:<br /><br />There are situations, however, when the newspaper must determine whether the public's safety is jeopardized by knowing the truth.<br /><br />Another example:<br /> "I'd like a glass of orange juice, please," John said.<br /> "I put the glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.<br /><br />Exception:<br />When a modifier appears between the article and the noun, the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:<br /> "I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.<br /> "I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.<br /><br />Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by cautionusing any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.<br /><br /> * A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.<br /> * An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.<br /> * The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.<br /> * Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.<br /><br />The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is that the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old beagle will do.") whereas the former (see beagle sentence) refers to all members of that class.<br /><br />Proper nouns: We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:<br /><br />* Geographical places: the Sound, the Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the West, the Smokies, the Sahara (but often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park)<br />* Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): the Netherlands, the Bahamas, the Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots<br /> * Public institutions/facilities/groups: the Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the House, the Presbyterian Church<br /> * Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times<br /> * Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang, the president of our club<br /><br />Abstract nouns: Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with articles, sometimes not:<br /><br /> * The storm upset my peace of mind. He was missing just one thing: peace of mind.<br /> * Injustice was widespread within the judicial system itself. He implored the judge to correct the injustice.<br /> * Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.<br /><br />Zero articles: Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages ("He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]), the names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")<br /><br />When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without articles. "We like wine with our dinner. We adore Baroque music. We use roses for many purposes." But if an "of phrase" comes after the noun, we use an article: "We adore the music of the Baroque." Also, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: "The Data Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't work."<br /><br />Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:<br />idiomatic expressions<br />using be and go We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)<br />He must be in school.<br />with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.<br />with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.<br />with meals Breakfast was delicious.<br />He's preparing dinner by himself.<br />with diseases He's dying of pneumonia.<br />Appendicitis nearly killed him.<br />She has cancer<br />(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)<br />with time of day We traveled mostly by night.<br />We'll be there around midnight.<br /><br />Principles of Choosing an Article<br /><br />Choosing articles and determiners: Briefly defined, a determiner is a noun-marker: when you see one, you know that what follows is a noun or noun phrase. There is a list of such words in the table below. When you place your mouse-cursor over a word or pair of related words (such as either/neither), you will see in the right-hand frame an image describing the kinds of words that word can modify.<br /><br />Zero article (see table below) means either that no article would be appropriate with that kind of noun or that that kind of noun can be used (in that context) without an article.<br /><br /><br />If you would like to see these images listed on one page, click HERE.<br /><br />Notice that there is a difference between a "stressed" some or any and an "unstressed" some or any. Consider the words in ALL CAPS as shouted words and you will hear the difference between these two:<br /><br /> * That is SOME car you've got there!<br /> * I don't want to hear ANY excuse!<br /><br />As opposed to. . .<br /><br /> * We have some cars left in the lot.<br /> * Isn't there any furniture in the living room?<br /><br />In terms of the words they usually modify, the unstressed some and any do not modify singular count nouns.ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-46343897787044555202009-11-11T05:20:00.000-08:002009-11-11T05:22:46.997-08:00MULTIPLEXINGFDM yaitu pemakaian secara bersama kabel yang mempunyai bandwidth yang tinggi terhadap beberapa frekuensi (setiap channel akan menggunakan frekuensi yang berbeda). Contoh metoda multiplexer ini dapat dilihat pada kabel coaxial TV, dimana beberapa channel TV terdapat beberapa chanel, dan kita hanya perlu tunner (pengatur channel) untuk gelombang yang dikehendaki. Pada teknik FDM, tidak perlu ada MODEM karena multiplexer juga bertindak sebagai modem (membuat permodulatan terhadap data digital). Kelemahan Modem disatukan dengan multiplexer adalah sulitnya meng-upgrade ke komponen yang lebih maju dan mempunyai kecepatan yang lebih tinggi (seperti teknik permodulatan modem yang begitu cepat meningkat). Kelemahannya adalah jika ada channel (terminal) yang tidak menghantar data, frekuensi yang dikhususkan untuk membawa data pada channel tersebut tidak tergunakan dan ini merugikandan juga harganya agak mahal dari segi pemakaian (terutama dibandingkan dengan TDM) kerana setiap channel harus disediakan frekuensinya. Kelemahan lain adalah kerana bandwidth jalur atau media yang dipakai bersama-sama tidak dapat digunakan sepenuhnya, kerana sebagian dari frekuensi terpaksa digunakan untuk memisahkan antara frekuensi channelchannel yang ada. Frekuensi pemisah ini dipanggil guardband<br />Prinsip dari FDM adalah pembagian bandwidth saluran transmisi atas sejumlah kanal (dengan lebar pita frekuensi yang sama atau berbeda) dimana masing-masing kanal dialokasikan ke pasangan entitas yang berkomunikasi. Contoh aplikasi FDM ini yang polpuler pada saat ini adalah Jaringan Komunikasi Seluler, seperti GSM ( Global System Mobile) yang dapat menjangkau jarak 100 m s/d 35 km. Tingkatan generasi GSM adalah sbb:<br />•First-generation: Analog cellular systems (450-900 MHz)<br />– Frequency shift keying for signaling<br />– FDMA for spectrum sharing<br />– NMT (Europe), AMPS (US)<br />•Second-generation: Digital cellular systems (900, 1800 MHz)<br />– TDMA/CDMA for spectrum sharing<br />– Circuit switching<br />– GSM (Europe), IS-136 (US), PDC (Japan)<br />•2.5G: Packet switching extensions<br />– Digital: GSM to GPRS<br />– Analog: AMPS to CDPD<br />•3G:<br />– High speed, data and Internet services<br />– IMT-2000<br /><br />Tujuan Muliplexing<br />- meningkatkan effisiensi penggunaan bandwidth / kapasitas saluran transmisi dengan cara berbagi akses bersama.<br /><br />Jenis Teknik Multiplexing<br />Teknik Multiplexing yang umum digunakan adalah :<br />a. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) : - Synchronous TDM<br /> - Asynchronous TDM<br />b. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)<br />c. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)<br />d. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)<br />e. Optical code Division Multiplexing (ODM)ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-69210634305596933642009-11-11T05:10:00.000-08:002009-11-11T05:19:58.586-08:00Protocol x.25Protocol x.25 adalah Standar internasional untuk akses jaringan dengan penyakelaran paket (packet switching) yang pertama muncul adalah X.25, yang direkomendasikan oleh CCITT (sekarang ITU-T) pada tahun 1976. Frame Relay yang muncul setelah X.25 ternyata jauh lebih efektif daripada X.25, karena X.25 kerjanya menjadi lambat karena adanya koreksi dan deteksi kesalahan. Frame Relay memiliki sedikit perbedaan, ia mendefinisikan secara berulang header-nya pada bagian awal dari frame seperti terlihat pada Gambar 1d, sehingga dihasilkan header frame normal 2-byte. Header Frame Relay dapat juga diperluas menjadi 3-byte atau 4-byte untuk menambah ruang alamat total yang disediakan. Dalam gambar-gambar yang mengilustrasikan jaringan-jaringan Frame Relay, piranti-piranti pengguna ditunjukkan sebagai pengarah-pengarah LAN, karena hal tersebut merupakan aplikasi Frame Relay yang berlaku secara umum. Tentu saja mereka dapat juga merupakan jembatan-jembatan LAN, Host atau front-end processor atau piranti lainnya dengan sebuah antarmuka Frame Relay.<br />Header Frame Relay terdiri dari deretan angka sepuluh bit, DLCI (Data Link Connection Identifier) merupakan nomor rangkaian virtual Frame Relay yang berkaitan dengan arah tujuan frame tersebut. Dalam hal hubungan antar kerja LAN-WAN, DLCI ini akan menunjukkan port-port yang merupakan LAN pada sisi tujuan yang akan dicapai.<br /><br />Device pada X.25 ini terbagi menjadi tiga kategori:<br /><br /> * Data Terminal Equipment (DTE),<br /> * Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) serta<br /> * Packet Switching Exchange (PSE).<br /> * Device yang digolongkan DTE adalah end-system seperti terminal, PC, host jaringan (user device).<br /> * Sedang device DCE adalah device komunikasi seperti modem dan switch. Device inilah yang menyediakan interface bagi komunikasi antara DTE dan PSE. Adapun PSE ialah switch yang yang menyusun sebagian besar carrier network. Hubungan antar ketiga kategori ini diilustrasikan pada gambar dibawah ini.<br /><br />Protokol Pada X.25<br /><br /> * Penggunaan protokol pada model standar X.25 ini meliputi tiga layer terbawah dari model referensi OSI. Terdapat tiga protokol yang biasa digunakan pada implementasi X.25 yaitu:<br /> * Packet-Layer Protocol (PLP),<br /> * Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB)<br /> * Serta beberapa standar elektronik dari interface layer fisik seperti EIA/TIA-232, EIA/TIA-449, EIA-530, dan G.703. <br /> * Gambar di bawah ini mengilustrasikan protokol-protokol X.25 ini pada model OSI.<br /><br />ebelum dua titik saling berkomunikasi dengan menggunakan protokol X.25 maka kedua titik ini harus terlehih dahulu membangun hubungan. Terdapat dua jenis mode dalam X.25 untuk membangun hubungan yaitu:<br /><br />· SVC (Switched Virtual Channel), Dalam mode ini node yang berinisiatif untuk membangun koneksi harus mengirimkan sinyal call request ke node tujuan. Bila diterima maka node tujuan akan mengirimkan sinyal call accepted dan sebaliknya bila ditolak maka node tujuan akan mengirimkan sinyal call rejected. Analogi dari mode koneksi ini adalah komunikasi melalui telepon, bila seseorang ingin menghubungi orang lain maka orang tersebut terlebih dahulu harus men-dial nomor tertentu. Diterima tidaknya panggilan ini tergantung dari titik tujuan. Virtual channel yang digunakan dalam mode SVC adalah per call basis.<br /><br />· PVC (Permanent Virtual Channel), Dalam mode ini virtual channel yang digunakan bersifat dedicated dan tidak perlu adanya ritual call setup. Analogi dari mode ini ini adalah saluran leased line dimana secara end-t-end hubungan fisik dan logik sudah terbentuk. <br /><br />Kelebihan:<br /><br />· Protokol X.25 memiliki kecepatan yang lebih tinggi dibanding RS-232 (64 kbps dibanding 9600 bps).<br /><br />· Protokol X.25 memiliki kemampuan untuk menyediakan logical channel per aplikasi.<br /><br />· Pendudukan logical channel dapat dilakukan secara permanen dengan mode PVC (Permanent Virtual Channel) maupun temporary dengan mode SVC (Switched Virtual Channel) disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan.<br /><br />· Data transfer pada X.25 bersifat reliable, data dijamin bahwa urutan penerimaan akan sama dengan waktu data dikirimkan.<br /><br />· Protokol X.25 memiliki kemampuan error detection dan error correction.<br /><br />Kekurangan:<br /><br />· Tidak semua sentral memiliki antarmuka X.25. Sehingga diperlukan pengadaan modul X.25 dengan syarat bahwa sentral sudah support X.25.<br /><br />· Untuk pengembangan aplikasi berbasis protokol X.25 membutuhkan biaya yang relatif lebih besar dibanding dengan RS-232 terutama untuk pembelian card adapter X.25.<br /><br />· Untuk komunikasi data antara sentral dengan perangkat OMT beberapa sentral diidentifikasi menggunakan protokol proprietary vendor tertentu yang berjalan di atas protokol X.25.ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-71369272634184987612009-11-11T05:05:00.000-08:002009-11-11T05:09:49.212-08:00Frame RelayFrame relay merupakan protocol WAN yang mempunyai performance tinggi yang bisa memberikan koneksi jaringan WAN sampai 2,048 Mbps (dan bahkan bisa lebih tinggi) ke berbagai belahan dunia. Frame relay menggunakan circuit virtual untuk koneksi site-2 dan memberikan lebar pipa bandwidth berskala yang bisa dijamin (dengan menggunakan apa yang disebut sebagai CIR- committed information rate). Frame relay begitu popular karena penawaran bandwidth yan berskala melalui jalur digital. Dengan menggunakan konfigurasi standard frame relay akan merupakan cara yang sederhana untuk meminimalkan masalah jaringan-2 frame relay.<br /><br />Frame relay didesign untuk transmisi digital melalui medium yang sudah handal, yang pada umumnya adalah fiber optic, bandingkan dengan jaringan yang menggunakan X.25 yang pada awalnya didesign untuk jaringan transmisi analog melalui medium yang dianggap tidak handal seperti standard line telpon.<br /><br />Standarisasi Frame Relay<br />Proposal awal mengenai teknologi Frame Relay sudah diajukan ke CCITT semenjak tahun 1984, namun perkembangannya saat itu tidak signifikan karena kurangnya interoperasi dan standarisasi dalam teknologi ini. Perkembangan teknologi ini dimulai di saat Cisco, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Northern Telecom, dan StrataCom membentuk suatu konsorsium yang berusaha mengembangkan frame relay. Selain membahas dasar-dasar protokol Frame Relay dari CCITT, konsorsium ini juga mengembangkan kemampuan protokol ini untuk berinteroperasi pada jaringan yang lebih rumit. Kemampuan ini di kemudian hari disebut Local Management Interface (LMI).<br /><br />Format Frame Relay<br />Format Frame Relay terdiri atas bagian-bagian sebagai berikut:<br />Flags<br />Membatasi awal dan akhir suatu frame. Nilai field ini selalu sama dan dinyatakan dengan bilangan hexadesimal 7E atau 0111 1110 dalam format biner. Untuk mematikan bilangan tersebut tidak muncul pada bagian frame lainnya, digunakan prosedur Bit-stuffing dan Bit-destuffing.<br /><br />Address<br />Terdiri dari beberapa informasi:<br />1. Data Link Connection Identifier (DLCI), terdiri dari 10 bita, bagian pokok dari header Frame Relay dan merepresentasikan koneksi virtual antara DTE dan Switch Frame Relay. Tiap koneksi virtual memiliki 1 DLCI yang unik.<br />2. Extended Address (EA), menambah kemungkinan pengalamatan transmisi data dengan menambahkan 1 bit untuk pengalamatan<br />3. C/R, menentukan apakah frame ini termasuk dalam kategori Perintah (Command) atau Tanggapan (Response)<br />4. FECN (Forward Explicit Congestion Notification), indikasi jumlah frame yang dibuang karena terjadinya kongesti di jaringan tujuan<br />5. BECN (Backward Explicit Congestion Notification), indikasi jumlah frame yang mengarah ke switch FR tersebut tetapi dibuang karena terjadinya kongesti di jaringan asal<br />6. Discard Eligibility, menandai frame yang dapat dibuang jika terjadi kongesti di jaringan<br /><br />Data<br />Terdiri dari data pada layer di atasnya yang dienkapsulasi. Tiap frame yang panjangnya bervariasi ini dapat mencapai hingga 4096 oktet.<br /><br />Frame Check Sequence<br />Bertujuan untuk memastikan integritas data yang ditransmisikan. nilai ini dihitung perangkat sumber dan diverifikasi oleh penerima.<br /><br />Sirkuit Virtual<br />Frame pada Frame Relay dikirimkan ke tujuannya dengan menggunakan sirkit virtual (jalur logikal dalam jaringan). Sirkit Virtual ini bisa berupa Sirkit Virtual Permanen (Permanent Virtual Circuit / PVC), atau Sirkit Virtual Switch (Switched Virtual Circuit / SVC).<br /><br />Berikut ini adalah fitur utama dari frame relay:<br /><br /> * Frame relay memberikan deteksi error tapi tidak memberikan recovery error.<br /> * Frame relay memberikan transfer data sampai 1.54Mbs<br /> * Frame relay mempunyai ukuran paket yang bervariable (disebut frame)<br /> * Frame relay bisa dipakai sebagai koneksi backbone kepada jaringan LAN<br /> * Frame relay bisa dimplementasikan melalui berbagai macam koneksi sambungan (56K, T1, T3)<br /> * Frame relay beroperasi pada layer physical dan layer Data link pada model OSI<br /><br />2. KEUNTUNGAN FRAME RELAY<br />Frame Relay menawarkan alternatif bagi teknologi Sirkuit Sewa lain seperti jaringan X.25 dan sirkuit Sewa biasa. Kunci positif teknologi ini adalah:[3]<br />•Sirkuit Virtual hanya menggunakan lebar pita saat ada data yang lewat di dalamnya, banyak sirkuit virtual dapat dibangun secara bersamaan dalam satu jaringan transmisi.<br />•Kehandalan saluran komunikasi dan peningkatan kemampuan penanganan error pada perangkat-perangkat telekomunikasi memungkinkan protokol Frame Relay untuk mengacuhkan Frame yang bermasalah (mengandung error) sehingga mengurangi data yang sebelumnya diperlukan untuk memproses penanganan error.<br /><br />Frame relay addressing<br />Frame relay menggunakan Data-link Connection Identifier (DLCI) untuk setiap circuit virtual<br />1. Range DLCI ada antara 16 dan 1007<br />2. DLCI mewakili koneksi antara dua piranti frame relay<br />3. Penyedia layanan frame relay memerikan DLCI saat vitual circuit di setup<br />4. Setiap DLCI adalah unik pada jaringan local akan tetapi tidak pada jaringan WAN secara keseluruhan.<br /><br />Local Management Interface (LMI)<br />LMI merupakan satu set ekstensi management protocol yang mengautomasikan banyak tugas-2 management frame relay. LMI bertanggungjawab untuk memanage koneksi dan melaporkan status koneksi.ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-83575986572538074212009-10-21T05:38:00.000-07:002009-10-21T05:44:20.001-07:00Masalah keamanan data pada saat transaksi dan cara penanggulangannyaPembayaran elektronik sekarang sudah menjadi seperti gaya hidup dan kebutuhan bagi sebagian masyarakat, terutama masyarakat perkotaan yang menginginkan pola bertransaksi yang praktis dan cepat. Dengan berkembangnya teknologi di bidang jaringan internet, suatu proses pembelian dan pembayaran melalui internet sudah bukan hal yang asing lagi.<br />Masalah terpenting dalam jaringan komputer adalah masalah keamanan data yang dikirimkan. Pelaku kejahatan memanfaatkan celah keamanan yang ada untuk dimasuki dan melakukan manipulasi data. Pihak penjahat itu bisa saja berniat untuk sekedar mencari tahu saja, atau juga bisa mencuri berbagai macam hal seperti uang, data rahasia, dll.<br />Secure Socket Layer (SSL) merupakan suatu protokol yang telah dikembangkan dan dipergunakan untuk mengatasi permasalahan keamanan yang mengancam proses transaksi menggunakan jaringan internet. SSL didukung pula dengan penyediaan fasilitas enkripsi yang cukup memadai dan dilengkapi dengan sebuah proses handshaking dan pengiriman data yang cukup aman untuk mengatasi berbagai kejahatan jaringan internet yang ada.<br />Dengan adanya kejahatan cyber yang berkembang di jaringan internet, maka tugas akhir ini akan menganalisa sistem keamanan yang mampu disediakan oleh sistem tersebut, meliputi simulasi serangan dan juga analisa yang disusun berdasarkan referensi yang sudah ada.<br />Sistem keamanan yang diimplementasikan ternyata bisa memenuhi parameter-parameter keamanan internet yaitu confidentiality, authority, authentication, integrity, dan non-repudiation. Sistem dengan protokol SSL ini juga sanggup mengantisipasi simulasi serangan man-in-the-middle dan juga masih aman terhadap serangan brute-force dalam waktu beberapa tahun ke depan. Kelemahan yang bisa diketahui dari sistem ini adalah masih rentan terhadap serangan denial of service, yang bisa membuat performa jaringan server menjadi sangat sibuk, dan bisa membuat kegagalan dalam transaksi rata-rata sebesar 2,31 % dari 15000 simulasi transaksi.ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-90178976081125335882009-10-14T16:34:00.000-07:002009-10-14T16:36:09.920-07:00PROTOKOL SECURE REAL TIME PROTOCOLPROTOKOL SECURE REAL TIME PROTOCOL <br /><br />Seiring dengan berkembangnya zaman, teknologi semakin mempererat hubungan antar manusia. Kita tidak<br />lagi perlu berhubungan secara langsung atau melalui tatap muka, kita dapat saling berhubungan satu <br />dengan yang lainnya misalnya melalui instant messenger, email, dll. Kita-pun semakin sadar mengenai <br />kebutuhan keamanan, dan kerahasiaan dari media tersebut. Karena kebutuhan itulah, SRTP sebuah metode <br />pengembangan dari RTP dibutuhkan. <br /><br />SRTP adalah sebuah protocol yang dikembangkan oleh kelompok kecil yang berasal dari CISCO dan<br />Ericson dan dipublikasikan pada Maret 2004. SRTP – Secure Real-time Transport Protocol adalah<br />pengembangan dari protocol RTP yang menyediakan fitur kerahasiaan melalui fasilitas enkripsi, <br />autentikasi dan integritas pesan, dan relay protection untuk RTP traffic dan untuk mengontrol traffic untuk <br />RTP. SRTP berfungsi untuk menjamin pengamanan pengiriman data khususnya multimedia file. <br /><br />SRTP menggunakan Algoritma AES sebagai metode enkripsi dalam pengiriman data. Pada aplikasinya <br />SRTP memiliki 2 buah mode, yaitu Segmented Integer Counter, dan AES di f8-mode. Selain itu SRTP juga <br />dapat berjalan dengan mode null cipher. Mode ini adalah mode dimana pengiriman data tidak dilindungi <br />dengan algoritma enkripsi. <br /><br />AES di Secured Real-time Transfer Protocol<br /><br />Transformasi Enkripsi yang didefinisikan di<br />SRTP memetakan paket indeks dan mengubah <br />kunci rahasia menjadi keystream segment SRTP.<br />Setiapa keystream segment mengenkripsi sebuah<br />RTP.<br />Proses untuk mengenkripsi sebuah paket terdiri <br />dari: <br />•Menghasilkan keystream segment sesuai<br />dengan paket <br />•Bitwise keystream segment XOR dengan<br />payload dariPaket RTP untuk menghasilkan Bagian yang terenkripsi dari SRTP paket.<br /><br />AES dalam mode Segmented Integer <br />Untuk memulai memahami kita mulai dengan <br />dengan plainteks M, kunci K, dan sebuah<br />counter ctr,dimana ctr adalah n bit string. C <br />adalah hasil XOR dari M dan bit pertama M akan<br />di pad sehingga<br /><br />EK(ctr) || EK(ctr + 1) || EK(ctr + 2)||..<br /><br />Sedangkan untuk mendekripsi diakukakn hal<br />yang sama sengan enkripsi tetapu M dan C<br />diubah urutannya<br /><br />Untuk scenario yang penggunaanya dianjurkan<br />nonce akan diawali dengan 0 dan menghasilkan<br />string ctr sebanyak 128 bit yang encode number<br />nonce 264(atau nonce dianggap sebagai 64 bit<br />binary number) Number dari nonce diincrement <br />setiap enkripsi. Biasanya nilau C juga ditransmut <br />bersama string yang mengencode nonce. <br /><br />Secara konsepsual, Counter Mode terdiri atas<br />mengenkripsi successive integers. Setiap paket <br />dienkripsi dengan keystream segment yang <br />berbeda, yang dapat dihitung dengan cara berikut<br />ini <br /><br />Inklusi dari SSRC memperbolehkan kita untuk<br />menggunakan sebuah kunci yang sama untuk<br />melindungi distinct SRTP streams didialam RTP<br />session yang sama <br /><br />Untuk SRTCP , SSRC dari setiap header pertama <br />dari compound packet harus di gunakan, 31 bit I<br />akan menjadi SRTCP index dan K_e , k_s akan <br />digantikan dengan SRTCP Encryption key dan<br />salt. <br /><br />Analisis keamanan AES CTR Mode <br /><br />Ketika menggunakan AES-CTR mode akan <br />menghasilkan kerahasiaan yang tinggi. <br />Sayangnya, sangat mudah untuk salah <br />mempergunakan counter mode. Ketika counter <br />block values digunakan dari satu paket dengan <br />kunci yang sama, key stream yang sama akan<br />digunakan untuk mengenkripsi kedua paket, <br />maka jaminan kerahasiaan terhindar/ <br />the same key stream will be used to encrypt both <br />packets, then the con?dentiality<br />Ketika dua plainteks yang berbeda dienkripsi<br />dengan satu keystream yang sama dan ketika hal<br />tersebut terjadi serangan <br /><br />(P1 XOR K1) XOR (Q1 XOR K1) = P1 XOR Q1<br />(P2 XOR K2) XOR (Q2 XOR K2) = P2 XOR Q2<br />(P3 XOR K3) XOR (Q3 XOR K3) = P3 XOR Q3<br /><br />Ketika orang yang ingin menddengarkan<br />pembicaraan kita tersebut mendapatkan kedua<br />plaintext tersebut di xor bersama, maka akan<br />dengan mudah dapat di pecah dan mendapatkan<br />plaintextnya. Jadim menggunakan sebuah<br />keystream untuk mengenkripsi dua buah <br />plainteks akan memperlihatkan plainteks <br />tersebut. Maka jangan menggunakan AES CTR <br />dengan kunci yang static. <br /><br />Selain itu kita juga membutuhkan perhatian yang <br />special untuk pencegahan penggunaan kembali <br />counter block value dengan static key selama<br />penggunaannya. <br /><br />Supaya aman, implementasi ESP harus<br />menggunakan kunci yang baru untuk digunakan<br />dalam AES CTR. Internet Key Exchange<br />protocol dapat dipergunakan untuk mendapatkan <br />kunci yang baru. IKE juga dapat dipergunakan<br />untuk mendapatkan nonce yang ada di bagian <br />pertama dari security association. <br /><br />Implementasi ESP yang memperbolehkan<br />penggunaan sebuah kunci yang sama untuk <br />enkripsi outbound traffic dam dekripsi incoming <br />traffic dengan peer yang sama harus bisa<br />memastikan bahwa nilai NONCE keduanya<br />berbeda <br /><br />AES f8-mode <br /><br />AES mode ini dipergunakkan untuk<br />mengenkripsi UMTS (Universal Mobile<br />Telecommunication System). Untuk High Level, <br />F8-Mode merupakan variasi dari Ouput <br />Feedback Mode dengan elaborasi dari <br />inisialisasi dan feedback function. Jika pada <br />normal OFB, intinya terdiri dari block cipher<br />Penghasilan Keystream <br /><br />Untuk Key stream S(0) ||... || S(L-1) sebagai N-<br />bit pesan akan didefinisikan dengan <br />Setting <br /><br />IV’ = E(k_e XOR m,IV) <br /><br />Dan j = 0, 1, …..L-1. Dimana L = N/ n_b<br />(difloorkan keatas). Perhatikan bahwa kita tidak<br />menggunakan langsung IV. Kita <br />menyerahkannya ke E dengan kunci lain untul <br />menghasilkan nilai yang tersamrkan untuk<br />mencegah Eavesdropper untuk mengetahui input <br />dan output pairs. <br /><br />Peran internal counter j adalah untuk<br />menghindari siklus short keystream. Hasil kunci<br />yang tersamarkan m sebagai berikut <br /><br />m = k_s | 0x555..5, <br /><br />sender tidak perlu menghasilkan 232 block, yang <br />mana cukup untuk menghasilkan 239 block. <br /><br />KESIMPULAN<br /><br />Penggunaan kriptografi dalam jaringan komputer <br />sudah menjadi hal yang biasa. AES merupakan <br />salah satu metode yang diimplementasikan<br />sebagai pengamanan dalam salah satu bagian <br />dari hal tersebut. <br /><br />Untuk menambah kesulitan dalam mendapatkan <br />pesan yang ada pada SRTP, maka pengiriman<br />pesan pada SRTP dapat dilakukan dengan <br />beberapa mode dari AES.<br /><br />Mode-mode ini berguna untuk mengenkripsi <br />pesan dengan mode yang berbeda sehingga<br />eavesdropper tidak dengan mudah menebak <br />mode yang digunakan dan sehingga<br />eavesdropper tidak dengan mudah memecahkan <br />dan mendapatkan plainteks yang dia ingin curi. <br /><br />Dari mode-mode yang ada, menurut penulis yang <br />paling baik adalah mode Counter Mode. <br />Walaupun Counter mode memiliki kelemahan<br />tetapi hasil enkripsi yang dihasilkan cukup kuat<br />sehingga susah dipecahkan. Dan hasil<br />keamanannya terjamin.ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-32167965687653771192009-10-09T06:55:00.001-07:002009-10-09T06:55:59.492-07:00DeterminersA determiner is a class of words that typically functions as a determiner (function) in noun phrases. As such, they establish the reference of a noun or noun phrase, including quantity, rather than its attributes as expressed by adjectives. Despite this tendency, determiners have a variety of functions including, in English, modifiers in adjective phrases and determiner phrases, and even markers of coordination.<br /><br />This word class, or part of speech, exists in many languages, including English, though most English dictionaries still classify determiners under other parts of speech. Determiners usually include articles, and may include items like demonstratives, possessive determiners, quantifiers, and cardinal numbers, depending on the language.<br />ContentsELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-300803491845384242009-10-09T06:49:00.001-07:002009-10-09T06:50:09.584-07:00Past tensePast Tense<br />Task: - Read the passage carefully. In the space between the lines, change the appropriate words to make the passage past tense. Just think of what you would say if all of the events in the passage happened yesterday.<br /><br /><br />Jim and Tom walk down the road towards town. They are going to buy the latest single by All Saints. Tom counts his money to make sure he can afford the single. They go into WHSmith and head towards the record department. Tom picks up the latest album by Robbie Williams. It has a good front cover, but Tom still wants to buy the All Saints single. He passes the single to the sales girl who takes his money off him. Tom takes the bag, but forgets the receipt so he runs back into the shop. The boys look at the single; they really want to play it. Jim wishes he has enough money to buy the Robbie Williams album. The boys talk for a while. They decide that they have enough if Tom gives Jim some of his money. Both boys now have a new record and are very pleased with themselves.<br /> <br />Past Tense<br />Task: - Read the passage carefully. In the space between the lines, change the appropriate words to make the passage past tense. Just think of what you would say if all of the events in the passage happened yesterday.<br /><br /><br />Jim and Tom walk down the road towards town. They are going to buy the latest single by All Saints. Tom counts his money to make sure he can afford the single. They go into WHSmith and head towards the record department. Tom picks up the latest album by Robbie Williams. It has a good front cover, but Tom still wants to buy the All Saints single. He passes the single to the sales girl who takes his money off him. Tom takes the bag, but forgets the receipt so he runs back into the shop. The boys look at the single; they really want to play it. Jim wishes he has enough money to buy the Robbie Williams album. The boys talk for a while. They decide that they have enough if Tom gives Jim some of his money. Both boys now have a new record and are very pleased with themselves.<br /><br /> <br />Past Tense<br />Task: - Read the passage carefully. In the space between the lines, change the appropriate words to make the passage past tense. Just think of what you would say if all of the events in the passage happened yesterday.<br /><br /><br />Jim and Tom walk down the road towards town. They are going to buy the latest single by All Saints. Tom counts his money to make sure he can afford the single. They go into WHSmith and head towards the record department. Tom picks up the latest album by Robbie Williams. It has a good front cover, but Tom still wants to buy the All Saints single. He passes the single to the sales girl who takes his money off him. Tom takes the bag, but forgets the receipt so he runs back into the shop. The boys look at the single; they really want to play it. Jim wishes he has enough money to buy the Robbie Williams album. The boys talk for a while. They decide that they have enough if Tom gives Jim some of his money. Both boys now have a new record and are very pleased with themselves.<br /><br /> <br />Past Tense<br />Task: - Read the passage carefully. In the space between the lines, change the appropriate words to make the passage past tense. Just think of what you would say if all of the events in the passage happened yesterday.<br /><br /><br />Jim and Tom walk down the road towards town. They are going to buy the latest single by All Saints. Tom counts his money to make sure he can afford the single. They go into WHSmith and head towards the record department. Tom picks up the latest album by Robbie Williams. It has a good front cover, but Tom still wants to buy the All Saints single. He passes the single to the sales girl who takes his money off him. Tom takes the bag, but forgets the receipt so he runs back into the shop. The boys look at the single; they really want to play it. Jim wishes he has enough money to buy the Robbie Williams album. The boys talk for a while. They decide that they have enough if Tom gives Jim some of his money. Both boys now have a new record and are very pleased with themselves.ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-7954492651850394262009-10-09T06:48:00.000-07:002009-10-09T06:49:20.350-07:00Simple presentSimple Present<br /><br />Ada beberapa penggunaan dari simple present tense, yaitu :<br />1. untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berulang<br />2. untuk menyatakan generalisasi atau kegiatan yang biasa berlangsung<br />3. Untuk menyetakan kegiatan saat ini.<br />Untuk lebih jelasnya perhatikan penjelesan di bawah ini<br /><br />1. Repeated Actions (Kegiatan berulang)<br />Simple present dapat digunakan untuk menyatakan gagasan atau kegiatan yang dilakukan sering dilakukan berulangkali seperti bangun tidur, atau kebiasaan seperti berolahraga, jadwal pemberangkatan kendaraan dan lain sebagainya, kegiatan tersebut dapat berupa kebiasaan, hobby, kegiatan sehari-hari, jadwal, dan juga kebiasaan yang selalu tidak dilakukan.<br /><br /><br /> <br /><br />Dari gambar diatas tanda silang warna biru adalah kejadian yang dilakukan, jadi kejadian tersebut selain dilakukan saat ini (persent) juga dilakukan pada waktu lampau (past) dan yang akan datang (future)<br /><br />EXAMPLES:<br /><br />I play tennis.<br /><br />She does not play tennis. <br /><br />The train leaves every morning at 8 am.<br /><br />The train does not leave at 9am.<br /><br />She always forgets her purse.<br /><br />He never forgets his wallet.<br /><br />Every twelve months, the Earth circles the sun.<br /><br />The sun does not circle the Earth.<br /><br />2. Menyatakan Kebenaran atau keadaan yang umum (Facts or Generalizations) <br /><br />Simple Present dapat juga digunakan untuk mengekspresikan suatu kejadian yang benar pada masa lampau, sekarang maupun yang akan datang, misalnya matahari terbit dari barat, satu jam 360 menit dan lain sebagainya. Selain itu Simple Present juga digunakan untuk menyatakan generalisasi (keadaan yang umum) terhadap pikiran orang, misalnya orang batak suka musik, burung mempunyai sayap dan lain sebagainya<br />Perhatikan gambar berikut untuk lebih jelasnya<br /> .<br /><br /><br />EXAMPLES:<br /><br />Cats like milk.<br /><br />Birds do not like milk.<br /><br />Jakarta is in Indonesia<br /><br />Surabaya is not in the United Kingdom.<br /><br />Windows are made of glass.<br /><br />Windows are not made of wood.<br /><br />Jakarta is a small city. (It is not important that this fact is untrue.)<br /><br />3. Keadaan Sekarang Now (Non-Continuous Verbs) <br /><br />Simple Present digunakan juga untuk menyatakan kegiatan yang berlangsung maupun tidak berlangsung saat ini secasra spontan. Namun hanya bisa digunakan dengan Non-continuous Verbs dan Mixed Verbs.<br /> <br /><br /><br />EXAMPLES:<br /><br />I am here now.<br /><br />She is not here now.<br /><br />He needs help right now.<br /><br />He does not need help now.<br /><br />He has a car.<br />Diterjemahkan dari : englishpage.comELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-5272932607910207802009-10-09T06:38:00.000-07:002009-10-09T06:48:34.797-07:00articelsArticles of Association of<br />Simpol - UK<br /><br /><br /> Interpretations<br />1. In these Articles:<br /> "The Act" means the Companies Act 1985 as amended by the Companies Act 1989 and any other amendments from time to time in force.<br /> "The Company" means the above named company.<br /> "The memorandum" means the Memorandum of Association of the Company.<br /> "The articles" means these Articles of Association.<br /> “The Founding Declaration” means the Founding Declaration of Simpol-UK as at the time of incorporation of the Company or as may be amended from time to time.<br /> "The Board of Trustees" means all those persons appointed to perform the duties of directors of the Company.<br /> "Secretary" means any person appointed to perform the duties of the Secretary of the Company.<br /> "The Seal" means the common seal of the Company.<br /> "In writing" shall be taken to include references to writing, printing, photocopying and other methods of representing or reproducing words in a visible form.<br /> Words importing the singular number shall include the plural and vice versa unless a contrary intention appears. Words importing persons shall include bodies corporate and associations if not inconsistent with the context. Unless the context requires otherwise, words or expressions contained in these Articles shall bear the same meaning as in the Act.<br /> Any statutory instruments or regulations from time to time in force shall be deemed to apply to the Company, whether or not these Articles have been amended to comply with such instrument or regulation.<br /><br /> Members<br />2. The Management Board may at its discretion admit to membership any individual person who lives in the United Kingdom or who is a United Kingdom citizen and who has adopted Simultaneous Policy, supports the work of the Company, accepts the rules and objectives of the Company, and who has paid or agreed to pay the annual subscription (if any) for the time being in force.<br /><br /> Register of Members<br />3. The Company shall maintain a Register of Members in which shall be recorded the name and address of every member, and the dates on which s/he became a member and on which s/he ceased to be a member. A member shall notify the Sec¬retary in writing within twenty one days of a change to their name or address.<br /><br /> Cessation of Membership<br />4. The rights and privileges of a member shall not be transferable nor transmissi¬ble, and all such rights and privileges shall cease upon the member ceasing to be such.<br /><br />5. A member shall cease to be a member if s/he:<br /><br />(a) resigns in writing to the Secretary; or<br /><br />(b) ceases to meet any of the criteria for membership specified in article 2; or<br /><br />(c) dies; or<br /><br />(d) fails to pay the annual subscription within three months of it becoming due; or<br /><br />(e) is expelled by the Management Board for conduct prejudicial to the Company, including bringing the Company into disrepute, defrauding the Company, being in breach of these memorandum and articles or of the Founding Declaration or of regulations made by the Company from time to time provided that any member whose expulsion is proposed shall be informed of the reasons for expulsion and have the right to make representation to the Management Board meeting at which the decision is to be made and if appropriate to thereafter appeal to the Board of Trustees.<br /> General Meetings<br /><br />6. The Company shall in each calendar year hold a General Meeting as its Annual General Meeting and shall specify the meeting as such in the notices calling it. Every Annual General Meeting shall be held not more than fifteen months after the holding of the last preceding Annual General Meeting. Provided the first Annual General Meeting shall be held within eighteen months of incorporation, it need not be held in the year of incorporation nor in the following year.<br /><br />7. The business of an Annual General Meeting shall comprise:<br /><br />(a) the consideration of the Report and Accounts presented by the Management Board;<br /><br />(b) the notification of results of the election of members of the Board of Trustees, previously conducted by postal and/or electronic ballot;<br /><br />(c) the appointment and the fixing of the remuneration of the auditor or auditors (if any);<br /><br />(d) such other business as may have been specified in the notices calling the meeting.<br /><br />8. All General Meetings other than the Annual General Meeting shall be called Extraordinary General Meetings.<br /><br />9. The Board of Trustees may whenever they think fit convene an Extraordinary General Meeting, or an Extraordinary General Meeting may be convened by ten per cent of the members of the Company, as provided by section 368 of the Act.<br /><br />10. Decisions at General Meetings shall be made by passing resolutions:<br />(a) Decisions involving an alteration to the memorandum or articles of the Company, or to wind up the Company, and other decisions so required from time to time by statute shall be made by a Special Resolution. A Special Resolution is one passed by a majority of not less than three fourths of votes cast.<br /><br />(b) Amendments to the Founding Declaration shall be made by a resolution of members, the percentage required to pass such an amendment shall be determined by the Board of Trustees from time to time.<br /><br />(c) Questions arising at any meeting shall be decided by consensus. By consensus is meant a situation where all members present are in agreement on an issue, or where those not in agreement agree not to maintain an objection. In the event of consensus not being possible, the matter shall be decided by a majority of votes, each member present having the right to one vote.<br /><br /> Notices<br />11. An Annual General Meeting and any General Meeting which is to consider a Special Resolution or a resolution to remove the auditor or a member of the Management Board shall be called by at least twenty one clear days’ notice. Any other General Meeting shall be called by at least fourteen clear days’ notice.<br /><br />12. Notice of every General Meeting shall be given in writing to every member of the Company and to the auditors and to such other persons who are entitled to receive notice and shall be given personally or sent by post to each member at the address recorded in the Register of Members and to other persons at their Registered Office.<br /><br />13. Notice of all meetings shall be given exclusive of the day on which it is served and shall specify the exact time and place of the meeting. In the case of a General Meeting which is to consider a Special Resolution or a resolution to remove <br />a Management Board member or the auditor, such resolution shall be specified in the notices calling that meeting and in the case of all other General Meetings the general nature of the business to be raised shall be specified.<br /><br />14. Where notice is sent by post, notice shall be deemed to have been served by properly addressing, prepaying and posting the notice and to have been served forty eight hours after the notice has been posted.<br /><br />15. The accidental omission to give notice of a meeting to or non receipt of notice of a meeting by any person entitled to receive notice shall not invalidate proceed¬ings at that meeting.<br /><br /> Proceedings at General Meetings<br />16. Any member of the Company, may act as proxy for another member who is absent from the meeting provided that any person claiming to act as proxy for any member shall produce written authorisation signed by the member in question to act as proxy on her/his behalf. A proxy may be instructed by the member for whom s/he is acting to support a consensus, or to vote this way or that on a particular resolution, or may be authorised to vote in accordance with her/his own judgement.<br /><br />17. No business shall be transacted at a General Meeting unless a quorum is present. Unless and until otherwise decided by a General Meeting, ten members or five percent of the total membership, whichever is the greater, shall be a quorum.<br /><br />18. If within half an hour from the time appointed for the meeting a quorum is not present, the meeting, if convened upon the requisition of members, shall be dissolved. In any other case it shall stand adjourned until such time and place as the Management Board may decide, and all members shall be given such notice as is practicable of the time, date and place of such an adjourned meeting. The members present at a meeting so adjourned shall constitute a quorum for that meeting only.<br /><br />19. At every General Meeting the Chairperson of the Company - if there is one - shall preside, but if s/he is not present within twenty minutes after the time appointed for the com¬mencement of the meeting the members present shall choose one of their number to be Chairperson of that meeting, whose function shall be to conduct the business of the meeting in an orderly manner.<br /><br />20. The Chairperson may with the consent of any meeting at which a quorum is present, and shall if so directed by the meeting, adjourn the meeting from time to time and from place to place, but no business shall be transacted at an adjourned meeting other than the business left unfinished at the meeting from which the adjournment took place. Where a meeting is adjourned for thirty days or more, notice of the adjourned meeting shall be given as in the case of the original meeting. Otherwise it shall not be necessary to give any notice of an adjournment or of the business to be transacted at an adjourned meeting.<br /><br />21. At any General Meeting a resolution put to the vote of the meeting shall be decided on a show of hands unless a secret ballot is, before or on the declara¬tion of the result of the show of hands, demanded by the representatives of at least two members present. Unless a secret ballot be so demanded, a declara¬tion by the Chairperson that a resolution has on a show of hands been carried or lost and an entry to that effect in the minutes of the proceedings of the Company shall be conclusive evidence of the fact without proof of the number or proportions of the votes recorded in favour or against such resolution.<br /><br />22. If a secret ballot is duly demanded it shall be taken in such a manner as the Chairperson directs, provided that each member shall have only one vote, and the result of the ballot shall be deemed to be the resolution of the meeting at which the ballot was demanded. The demand for a secret ballot may be with¬drawn.<br /><br />23. The demand for a secret ballot shall not prevent the continuance of a meeting for the transaction of any other business than the question upon which a ballot has been demanded.<br /><br />24. In the case of an equality of votes, whether on a show of hands or on a ballot, the Chairperson of the meeting shall have a second or casting vote.<br />Board of Trustees<br /><br />25. The Company shall have a Board of Trustees consisting of a minimum of three and a maximum of eleven people, whose function would be to act as the guardian and interpreter of the Founding Declaration, to safe guard the spirit of Simultaneous Policy and ensure the company has a strategic direction. For the avoidance of doubt the Board of Trustees are the Board of Directors of the Company.<br /><br />26. The Board of Trustees shall be elected by the members of the Company for a maximum term of office of three years.<br /><br />27. At the first and every Annual General Meeting, one third of the elected members of the Board of Trustees, or if their number is not a multiple of three then the number nearest to one-third, shall retire from office. The members to retire shall be those longest in office since their last election. Regarding members of the Board of Trustees who have been in office for the same length of time, in the absence of agreement or volunteers, the members to retire shall be selected by lot. <br /><br />28. The Board of Trustees shall elect a chair from among their own number.<br /><br />29. The position of Board of Trustees member shall be unpaid, however Board members may be paid all reasonable out of pocket expenses incurred by them in attending and returning from meetings of the Board or General Meetings of the Company or in connection with the business of the Company.<br /><br />30. The office of Board of Trustee member shall be immediately vacated if s/he:<br /><br />(a) resigns her/his office in writing to the Company; or<br /><br />(b) in the opinion of a majority of the Board of Trustees, fails to declare her/his interest in any contract as referred to in article 31; or<br /><br />(c) becomes bankrupt or, in the opinion of the Board of Trustees, incapable on medical or psychological grounds of carrying out the duties; or<br /><br />(d) is removed from office by resolution of the Company in General Meeting in accordance with Section 303 of the Act; or<br /><br />(e) is disqualified by law from serving as a director of a company.<br /><br />31. A Board of Trustees member shall declare an interest in and shall not speak or vote in respect of any matter in which s/he has a personal material or financial interest or any matter arising from it.<br /><br /> Powers and Duties of the Board of Trustees<br />32. The business of the Company shall be managed by the Board of Trustees who may delegate all or any of the following functions to the Management Board, who may pay all expenses of the formation of the Company as they think fit and may exercise all such powers of the Company as may be exercised and done by the Company and as are not by statute or by these Articles required to be exercised or done by the Company in General Meeting.<br /><br />33. No regulation made by the Company in General Meeting shall invalidate any prior act of the Board of Trustees which would have been valid had that regulation not been made. <br /><br />34. All cheques, promissory notes, drafts, bills of exchange and other negotiable instruments, and all receipts for moneys paid to the Company shall be signed, drawn, accepted, endorsed, or otherwise executed in such manner as the Board of Trustees shall from time to time direct.<br /><br />35. Without prejudice to its general powers, the Board of Trustees may exercise all the powers of the Company to borrow money and to mortgage or charge its undertaking and property or any part of them and to issue debentures and other securities whether outright or as security for any debt, liability or obligation of the Com¬pany or of any third party.<br /><br /> Proceedings of the Board of Trustees <br />36. Members of the Board of Trustees may meet together for the despatch of business and may adjourn and otherwise regulate their meetings as they think fit provided that they meet no fewer than four times per year.<br /><br />37. The quorum necessary for the transaction of the business of the Board of Trustees shall be three Board of Trustees members or one third of the Board of Trustees, whichever is the greater.<br /><br />38. The Board of Trustees shall cause accurate records to be made, in books provided for that purpose, of:<br /><br />(a) the name, details and date of appointment of all persons appointed to office;<br /><br />(b) the names of the Board of Trustees members, officers, members' representatives and other persons present at all General, Board of Trustees and Sub Committee meetings of the Company;<br /><br />(c) minutes of all proceedings and resolutions at all General, Board of Trustees and Sub Committee meetings of the Company;<br /><br />(d) all applications of the Seal to any document.<br /><br />39. All such records and minutes shall be open to inspection during normal working hours by any member of the Board of Trustees and by any person authorised by the Com¬pany in General Meeting. Minutes of General Meetings shall be available for inspection by any member of the Company during normal working hours.<br /><br />40. The Board of Trustees may delegate any of their powers to Sub Committees consisting of such members of their body and/or the Company as they think fit. Any Sub Committee so formed shall in the exercise of the powers so delegated conform to any regulations imposed on it by the Board of Trustees, which regulations shall always include provision for regular and prompt reports to the Board of Trustees.<br /><br />41. All acts done by any meeting of the Board of Trustees or by any person acting as a member of the Board of Trustees shall, even if it be afterwards discovered that there was some defect in the appointment of any such Board of Trustees member or person acting as such, or that they or any of them were disqualified, be as valid as if every such person had been duly appointed and was qualified to be a Board of Trustees member.<br /><br />42. A resolution in writing, signed by all the Board of Trustees members for the time being entitled to vote, shall be valid and effective as if it had been passed at a meeting of the Board of Trustees, and may consist of several documents in the same form, each signed by one or more Board of Trustees members.<br /><br />43. The Board of Trustees may at their discretion invite other persons to attend its meetings, with or without speaking rights, and without voting rights.<br />Policy Committee<br /><br />44. The Company may establish a Policy Committee whose function shall be to assist in formulating the policy content of the Simultaneous Policy based on research and dialogue with other Simultaneous Policy organisations. Members of the Policy Committee shall be appointed by virtue of their skills and experience. Procedures for the meetings, appointment and removal of Policy Committee members shall be determined by regulations in accordance with article 60.<br />Management Board<br /><br />45. The Management Board shall be appointed by the Board of Trustees. <br /><br />46. The Management Board shall be responsible for the day to day operations of the Company and for carrying out the policy determined by the Trustees. Management Board members may be paid for their services as well as being paid all reasonable out of pocket expenses incurred by them in attending and returning from meetings of the Board or General Meetings of the Company or in connection with the business of the Company.<br /><br />47. A Management Board member shall declare an interest in and shall not speak or vote in respect of any matter in which s/he has a personal material or financial interest or any matter arising from it.<br /><br />48. The Management Board shall meet and otherwise regulate their meetings as they consider fit.<br /><br /> Secretary<br />49. The Board of Trustees shall appoint a Secretary of the Company upon such conditions as they think fit and any Secretary so appointed may be removed by them. <br /><br />50. A provision of the Act or these Articles requiring or authorising a thing to be done by or to a Board of Trustees member and the Secretary shall not be satisfied by its being done by or to the same person acting in both capacities.<br /><br /> The Seal<br />51. If the Company has a Seal, it shall only be used by the authority of the Board of Trustees and every instrument to which the Seal shall be applied shall be signed by a Board of Trustees member and shall be countersigned by the Secretary or by a second Board of Trustees member. Every such application of the Seal shall be minuted.<br /><br /> Accounts<br />52. The Board of Trustees shall cause proper accounts to be kept in accordance with the law for the time being in force with respect to:<br /><br />(a) all sums of money received and expended by the Company and the matters in which the receipt and expenditure takes place;<br /><br />(b) all sales and purchases of goods by the Company;<br /><br />(c) the assets and liabilities of the Company.<br /><br />53. Proper accounts shall be deemed to be kept if they give a true and fair record of the state of the Company's affairs and explain its transactions.<br /><br />54. The accounts shall be kept at the Registered Office of the Company or, subject to section 222 of the Act, at such other place or places as the Board of Trustees thinks fit, and shall always be open to the inspection of all members and officers and by other persons authorised by the Company in General Meeting.<br /><br />55. The Board of Trustees shall from time to time, in accordance with sections 227 and 241 of the Act, cause to be prepared and to be laid before the Company in General Meeting such income and expenditure accounts, balance sheets, and any reports referred to in those sections.<br /><br />56. A copy of every balance sheet (including every document required by law to be annexed thereto) which is laid before the Company in General Meeting, together with a copy of the auditor's report and Board of Trustee’s report, shall not less than twenty one days before the date of the meeting (subject nevertheless to the provisions of section 240(4) of the Act) be sent to every member of and every holder of debentures of the Company; provided that this regulation shall not require a copy of those documents to be sent to any person of whose address the Company is not aware or to more than one of the joint holders of any debentures. The auditor's report shall be open to inspection and shall be read before the meeting.<br /><br /> Audit<br />57. In accordance with the law for the time being in force the Company may - if it is eligible to do so - apply the small company audit exemptions. Otherwise once at least in every year the accounts of the Company shall be examined and the correctness of the income and expenditure account and balance sheet ascer¬tained by one or more properly qualified auditor or auditors.<br /><br />58. Auditors shall be appointed and their duties regulated in accordance with sections 237 and 384 of the Act.<br /><br /> Indemnity<br />59. Every Board of Trustees, Management Board member or auditor or officer of the Company shall be indemnified out of the assets of the Company against all losses or liabilities incurred by her/him in or about the execution and discharge of the duties of her or his office, except to the extent that such losses or liabilities shall be attributed to: <br /><br />(a) fraud or other matters in respect of which such person concerned shall be convicted of a criminal offence; or<br /><br />(b) negligence; or<br /><br />(c) actions knowingly beyond the scope of a specific authority or limit thereon on the part of such person.<br /><br /> Regulations<br />60. The Company in General Meeting or the Board of Trustees may from time to time make, adopt and amend such regulations in the form of bye-laws, standing orders, secondary rules or otherwise as they may think fit for the management, conduct and regulation of the affairs of the Company and the proceedings and powers of the Board of Trustees, Management Board and Sub-Committees, provided that such regulations are not inconsistent with the memorandum and articles nor with the Founding Declaration, and do not amount to an addition or alteration such as could only legally be made by an alteration to the memorandum or articles. All members of the Company, Board of Trustees and Management Board shall be bound by such regulations whether or not they have received a copy of them.<br /><br /> Dissolution<br />61. Clause 8 of the Memorandum of Association relating to the winding up and dissolution of the Company shall have effect as if its provisions were repeated in these Articles.ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7804567573103455744.post-80568910025407995762009-10-07T09:42:00.000-07:002009-10-07T09:43:42.599-07:00Other and AnotherWith Count Nouns
<br /> an + other + singular noun (one more)
<br />another pencil
<br /> one more pencil the + other + singular man (last of set)
<br />the other pencil
<br /> the last pencil present other + plural noun (more of the set)
<br />other pencil
<br /> some more pencil the other + plural noun (the rest of these)
<br />the other pencils
<br /> all remaining pencils
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<br />With Non-Count Nouns
<br />other + non-count nouns (more of the set)
<br />other water : some more water
<br />the other + non-countnoun (all the rest)
<br />the other water : the remaining water
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<br />Exercise
<br />1. This pen isn't working please give me another
<br />2. if you're still thirsty, i'll make the other pot of coffe
<br />3. This dictionary has a page missing. Please give me the other one
<br />4. He doesn't need those books. He needs the other
<br />5. These are thirty people in the room. Tweenty are from Latin America and the other are from other countries
<br />6. Six people were in the store two were buying meat the other was looking at magazines.
<br />7. This glass of milk is sour. Another glass of milk is sour too.
<br />8. The army was practicing its drills. One group was doing artillery other was marching, another was at attention, and the other was pradicing combat tactics.
<br />9. These are seven students from Japan other are from Iran and the other from other places.
<br />10.We locked at four cars today the first two were far too expensive, but the others ones were reasonably piced.
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<br />ELSA NOVRIATI LINAhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/13204975055122562401noreply@blogger.com0